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LIPPINCOTTS 
HOME  MANUALS 


SUCCESSFUL 
CANNING  AND 
PRESERVING 

OLA  POWELL 


...-,-,..  sss,    -.-.isggsjsfB* 


"Survey  our  empire  and  behold  our  home!  " 

— BYRON. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOME   MANUALS 

EDITED  BY 

BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OP  HOUSEHOLD  ECONOMICS,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING 
AND  PRESERVING 

PRACTICAL  HAND   BOOK  FOR 
SCHOOLS,  CLUBS,  AND  HOME  USE 

BY  OLA  POWELL 

U.  8.  DEPARTMENT  OP  AGRICULTURE,  ASSISTANT  IN  HOME 
DEMONSTRATION  WORK  IN  STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOME  MANUALS 

Edited  by  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 

TEACHERS     COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

CLOTHING  FOR  WOMEN 

BY  LAURA  I.  BALDT,  B.S. 

TEACHERS     COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

454  pages,  7  colored  plates,  262  illustrations  in  text, 
$2.00  net. 

SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND 
PRESERVING 

BY  OLA  POWELL 

DEPARTMENT    OP    AGRICULTURE,    WASHINGTON,    D.  C. 

372  pages,  4  colored  plates,  164  illustrations  in  text, 
$2.00  net. 

IN  PREPARATION 

HOUSEWIFERY 

BY  L.  RAY  BALDERSON,  B.S. 

TKAf'HKRS     COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVK.KrtTTY 

MILLINERY 

BY  EVELYN  SMITH  TOBEY,  B.S. 

TEACHERS     COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


LiPPiNCOTT's  HOME  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY  BENJAMIN  R.  ANDREWS,  PH.D. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING 
AND  PRESERVING 

PRACTICAL  HAND  BOOK  FOR  SCHOOLS, 
CLUBS,  AND  HOME  USE 


BY 

OLA  POWELL 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  ASSISTANT  IN  HOME  DEMONSTRATION 
WORK  IN  STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE 


4  COLORED  PLATES,  164  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 


PHILADELPHIA   &   LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


0\ 


COPTRIGHT,     1917,    BT    J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


TO 

TRT 

YOUR   BEST   BETTER"   MY  WORK  IS 
SYMPATHETICALLY    DEDICATED 


3C6691 


PREFACE 

THE  canning  and  preserving  of  food  products  is  an  important 
factor  in  household  management  and  of  even  greater  importance 
in  national  economy,  since  the  conservation  of  foodstuffs,  from 
the  time  of  production  and  natural  time  of  consumption  to  a 
later  time,  makes  for  a  more  varied  and  adequate  diet,  and  that 
secured  at  a  lower  economic  cost.  Practical  success  in  canning, 
preserving,  drying,  and  brining  turns  upon  the  proper  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  science  involved.  The  great  necessity  for 
scrupulous  care  in  every  step  of  the  whole  process  is  imperative. 
A  worker  who  follows  scientific  principles  and  is  watchful  of 
sanitary  conditions  will  have  results  that  are  uniform  and  sat- 
isfying. It  is  easy  to  talk  of  science  in  the  abstract  as  applied 
to  such  problems,  but  unless  one  can  show  just  how  this  science 
demands  that  the  processes  be  conducted  in  order  to  secure  suc- 
cess, such  applied  "science"  is  mere  pretence. 

Women  and  girls  are  now  facing  a  most  wonderful  oppor- 
tunity for  service  in  aiding  to  produce  and  conserve  foods  not 
only  for  home  consumption,  but  by  increasing  the  commercial 
products  for  export  to  Europe.  The  responsibility  of  wisely 
utilizing  the  yield  from  greatly  increased  acreage  rests  in  good 
part  upon  the  women  and  girls.  Their  work  can  be  simplified 
and  made  more  effective  by  wisely  applying  scientific  methods. 

It  is  imperitive  not  only  to  produce  and  conserve  supplies  of 
food,  but  also  to  select  the  most  economical  means  of  keeping  the 
various  food  products.  In  view  of  these  facts,  the  suitability  of 
canning  in  comparison  with  other  means  of  keeping  food  must 
be  considered.  Since  the  public  has  been  convinced  of  the  con- 
venience of  handling  and  serving  canned  foods,  canning  has  be- 
come the  most  widely  used  and  popular  means  of  preserving  large 
quantities  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  Some  products  could  be 
stored  and  sometimes  prepared  more  economically  in  the  home 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

if  conserved  by  other  means  of  preservation,  such  as  drying, 
brining  and  storing. 

Preserving  foods  by  drying  is  a  very  desirable  means  and 
one  which  is  especially  important  to  practice  when  there  exists  a 
shortage  of  tin  cans  and  when  glass  containers  have  advanced 
a  great  deal  in  price. 

Vegetables,  such  as  sweet  corn,  green  string  beans,  peas,  and 
fruits  such  as  cherries,  berries,  peaches,  and  figs,  can  be  dried, 
and  in  this  state  they  will  furnish  variety  and  serve  as  a  substi- 
tute for  canned  foods.  If  properly  dried  and  stored  many  foods 
are  attractive  and  wholesome.  Such  vegetables  as  cauliflower, 
cabbage,  cucumbers,  and  chayotes  are  better  saved  in  brine  than 
canned.  Many  other  vegetables  may  also  be  kept  in  brine. 
Legumes  like  peas  and  beans,  root  crops  like  carrots  and  beets, 
while  attractive  when  canned  in  a  succulent  stage,  are  more 
nutritious  and  more  economically  stored  when  mature. 

The  use  of  various  foods  in  the  home  should  be  planned  in 
advance,  so  there  will  be  no  waste,  at  the  same  time  having  food 
for  each  meal  economically  combined  and  balanced  so  as  to  nourish 
each  member  of  the  family  properly. 

This  book  has  been  written  to  help  rather  than  to  shine,  and 
if  it  does  help,  the  author  will  be  content. 

OLA  POWELL. 
JULY,  1917. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

THE  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  her  appreciation  to  those 
who  have  read  and  criticized  the  manuscript;  to  Mr.  0.  B.  Mar- 
tin, Assistant  in  Charge  of  Demonstration  Club  Work,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  for  his  interest  and  encouragement 
during  the  entire  preparation  of  the  manuscript;  to  Miss  Mary 
E.  Creswell,  Assistant  in  Home  Demonstration  Work,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  for  reading  and  criticizing  the  manu- 
script, and  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Home  Demonstration 
Work  given  in  Chapter  XIX ;  to  Miss  Rhea  C.  Scott,  Specialist 
in  Home  Demonstration  Work  in  Louisiana,  for  her  sympathy,  in- 
terest, and  assistance  throughout  the  preparation ;  to  Mr.  Charles 
T.  Dearing,  Assistant  Horticulturist,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, for  reading  and  criticizing  the  chapter  on  "  Fruit 
Juices  ";  to  Dr.  M.  N.  Straughn,  Scientific  Assistant,  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  reading  and 
correcting  the  chapter  on  ' '  Jelly  Making, ' '  also  for  the  table  for 
using  the  Brix  hydrometer  in  fruit  juices  for  jelly  making;  to 
Miss  Caroline  L.  Hunt,  Scientific  Assistant,  Office  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  Chapter  XVII, 
"Uses  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  the  Diet";  to  Mrs.  Jane  S. 
McKimmon,  State  Home  Demonstration  Agent  in  North  Carolina, 
for  chapter  on  "The  Business  Side  of  Canning";  to  Frantz  P. 
Lund,  Specialist,  States  Relations  Service,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, for  valuable  contributions  to  chapter  on  "  Drying  Fruits, 
Vegetables,  and  Herbs";  to  Mr.  H.  C.  Thompson,  Horticulturist, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  criti- 
cizing Chapter  XV  and  for  the  information  on  storing  garden 
and  orchard  products ;  to  Dr.  L.  A.  Round,  Scientific  Assistant, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  criticizing 
chapter  on  "Pickling,"  and  for  furnishing  the  table  for  making 
brines ;  to  Dr.  Albert  Mann,  Plant  Morphologist,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and  Dr.  Albert  Brubaker,  Jefferson  Medical 


IX 


X  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

College,    Philadelphia,    for    criticizing    the    chapter    on    ''Bac- 
teriology as  Applied  to  Canning " ;  to  Miss  Sarah  Wilson,  Drexel 
Institute,  Philadelphia,  for  criticizing  the  manuscript  and  pre- 
paring the  list  of  questions  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  from  the 
point  of  view  of  a  Home  Economics  teacher ;  to  Mr.  F.  H.  Hall, 
New  York  Experiment  Station,  for  the  recipe  "Making  Cider 
Vinegar  on  the  Farm";  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  photographs,  material  quoted,  and  ideas  obtained  from  the 
following  publications:  Department  Bulletin  No.  241,  "Studies 
on  Fruit  Juices";  U.  S.  Yearbook,  1914,  "Apple  Syrup  and  Con- 
centrated Cider,"  by  H.  C.  Gore;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  644, 
"Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice,"  by  George 
C.  Husmann;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  183,  "Meat  on  the  Farm: 
Butchering,  Curing  and  Keeping,"  by  Andrew  Boss;  for  circu- 
lars from  the  States  Relations  Service,  Extension  Work  in  the 
South,  prepared  by  Miss  Mary  E.  Creswell  and  Miss  Ola  Powell ; 
also  to  Major  Lawrence  Foot  for  the  use  of  Arkansas  Extension 
Bulletin,  "  How  to  Cure,  Smoke,  and  Keep  Hams,  Shoulders,  and 
Bacon";  to  Mr.  G.  L.  Tiebout,  Louisiana  State  University,  for 
results  of  experiments  in  cauliflower  brining;  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Red- 
head, Louisiana  State  University,  for  recipe  on  pepper  chow- 
chow;  to  Mrs.  Dora  D.  Walker,  Assistant  State  Agent  in  Home 
Demonstration  Work  in  South  Carolina,  for  recipe  on  "Pimiento 
Ketchup";  to  Mrs.  Margaret  Jonas,  Assistant  State  Agent  in 
Home  Demonstration  Work  in  Kentucky,  for  recipe  on  "Can- 
ning Cucumber  Slices. ' '    A  few  of  the  recipes  for  use  of  canned 
goods  in  this  book  are  adapted  from  such  authors  as  Miss  Anna 
Barrows,  Miss  Helen  M.  Spring,  and  Miss  Fannie  Farmer ;  some 
are  from  private  sources,  and  others  are  original. 

The  following  books  especially  were  consulted  during  the 
preparation  of  the  material:  "Household  Bacteriology,"  by 
Estelle  D.  and  Robert  Earle  Buchanan;  "Canning  and  Preserv- 
ing of  Food  Products  with  Bacteriological  Technique,"  by  E.  W. 
Duckwall;  " Complete  Course  in  Canning,"  by  C.  L.  Denning; 
"Canning  and  How  to  Use  Canned  Foods,"  by  A.  W.  and  K.  G. 
Bitting;  also  The  Trade,  Baltimore,  and  other  magazines  were 
consulted. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


XI 


Assistance  is  acknowledged  from  all  of  the  commercial  con- 
cerns which  have  so  generously  contributed  illustrations  and  in- 
formation. Thanks  are  also  due  and  gratefully  given  to  many 
others  who  have  aided  by  advice,  information,  and  encourage- 
ment. 

To  Miss  Carrie  Harrison,  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, is  due  the  phrase  used  as  the  dedication,  "To  you  who 
are  striving  to  make  your  best  better" — which  expresses  the 
sentiment  to-day  animating  the  tens  of  thousands  of  canning  club 
girls,  South  and  North  and  West,  as  it  also  expresses  the  perennial 
spirit  of  the  American  housewife. 

OLA  POWELL. 
JULY,  1917. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  HISTORY  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING 1 

II.  BACTERIOLOGY  AS  APPLIED  TO  CANNING 15 

III.  PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 36 

IV.  CANNING  IN  TIN 59 

V.  CANNING  IN  GLASS 71 

VI.  PROCESSING — HOT- WATER  BATH 77 

VII.  PROCESSING  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURE 87 

VIII.  FRUIT  JUICES 93 

IX.  FRUITS  FOR  CANNING 124 

X.  VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING 133 

XI.  PRESERVES 148 

XII.  MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES 163 

XIII.  JELLY  MAKING 174 

XIV.  PICKLING 189 

XV.  DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS 228 

XVI.  PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS ' 256 

XVII.  USE  OF  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  IN  THE  DIET 275 

XVIII.  CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION 282 

XIX.  THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING 300 

XX.  TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 316 

APPENDIX 346 

INDEX.  .  .   353 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLOR  PLATES 

PLATE  PAGE 

Preserves    Frontispiece 

I.  Attractive  Packs  of  Canned  Fruits    126 

II.  Attractive   Pickle  Packs    204 

III.  Food  Chart    276 

ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 

FIG. 

1.  Type  of  Can   Used  about   1889    3 

2.  Manufacturing  Tin  Cans  To-Day 4 

3.  Chart  Showing  Comparison  of  Value  of  Meat  Products  by  States 

in   1899    and    1909 7 

4.  A  Chart  Showing  Comparison  of  Value  of  Canned  and  Preserved 

Products  by  States  in  1899  and  1909 8 

5.  A  Processing  Device  for  Home  Canning  Proposed  in  1889 10 

6.  Parasitic   Organisms 16 

7.  Aspergillus  fumigatus  (Appears  on  Tomato  Sauces  and  Preserves)  18 

8.  Bacillus  Found  on  Tomatoes,  Showing  Flagellae 19 

9    Penicillium  glaucum    (x  500 ) 20 

10    Various  Stages  of  Brewers'  Yeast 21 

11.  Bacillus  butyricus    (Rods  and  Spores  Found  in  Corn) 24 

12.  Anaerobic  Pea  Bacillus  25 

13.  Bacillus  megatherium    (Vegetating  Forms  as  Found   in   Cans  of 

Peas ) 26 

14.  (A]  Can  Bursted  from  Pressure  of  Gas  Generated,  (B)  A  Normal 

Can,   (<7)   A  Swell 27 

15.  Testing  the  Jar  Seal 28 

16.  A  Group  of  Useful  Utensils  for  Washing,  Peeling,  Coring,  Grating 

and  Slicing  Fruit  and  Vegetables 37 

17.  Special  Equipment  Necessary  to  Obtain  Most  Successful  and  Accu- 

rate Results    37 

18.  Utensils  Used  in  Blanching  and  in  Cooking 38 

19.  The  Processor  and  Rack  with  Jars  Ready  to  be  Sterilized 39 

20.  Tongs  for  Handling  Hot  Cans 40 

21.  Cooperative   Canning   Minimizes   Labor;    Canning   Club   Girls   in 

Anson  County,  N.  C.,  at  Work    41 

22.  North  Carolina  County  Agents  at  Peace  Institute,  Raleigh,  N.  C.  42 

xv 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

23.  A  Homemade  Fly-Trap 43 

24.  Mississippi  Club  Girls  Building  a  Fly-Trap  for  Out-of-Door  Can- 

ning      44 

25.  A  Convenient  Arrangement  for  Out-of-Door  Canning 45 

26.  Canning  Out  of  Doors,  State  Normal  School,  Harrisonburg,  Va.. . .  46 

27.  Canning  Tomatoes  from  the  Scholarship  Plot,  State  Normal  School, 

Harrisonburg,   Va 47 

28.  A  Kerosene  Stove  which  Burns  a  Gas  Flame  for  Heating  Soldering 

Tools   47 

29.  A   Fire-Pot  Burning  Corn-Cobs  for   Heating  Tools.     A   Gasoline 

Fire-Pot  or  Charcoal  Bucket  May  also  be  Used    48 

30.  A  Folding  Portable  Canner 49 

31.  Standard  Sizes  of  Tin  Containers 49 

32.  Size  of  Cans  Used  for  Household  Purposes 50 

33.  Hand  Machine  for  Sealing  Special  Sanitary  Cans 51 

34.  Capping  Steel  and  Tipping  Copper 52 

35.  A  Group  of  Jars  for  Household  Use 53 

36.  Commercial  Jars  for  Special  Products 54 

37.  Appropriate  Containers  for  Exhibit  Purposes 55 

38.  Individual  Containers 56 

39.  Box  of  Rubbers  and  a  Jar 57 

40.  Sorting  and  Grading  Tomatoes 61 

41.  Uniform  Tomatoes  Together 62 

42.  Scalding  Tomatoes,  Using  a  Square  of  Cheesecloth 63 

43.  Capping 65 

44.  Tipping 65 

45.  Heating,  Tinning,  Capping,  and  Tipping 66 

46.  Students  Learning  to  Can  in  Tin 67 

47.  Labelling   68 

48.  Sterilizing  Glass  Jars    72 

49.  Packing  Uniform  Pieces  of  Rhubarb 72 

50.  Well-Packed  Jar  of  Peaches 73 

51.  Paddles   74 

52.  Canning  in   Glass   on  Campus  of  Peabody   College  for  Teachers, 

Nashville,  Tenn 75 

53.  An  Ordinary  Bucket  Used  as  a  Processor 78 

54.  A  Wash-Boiler  with  False  Bottom  Makes  a  Convenient  Processor.  78 

55.  Canner  Made  of  Tubs  for  Outdoor  Use 79 

56.  A  Homemade  Canner  with  Brick  Fire-Box  and  Tub  80 

57.  Showing  Construction  of  a  Hot- Water  Canner 81 

58.  A  Kerosene  Stove  Burning  a  Gas  Flame 82 

59.  A  Folding  Two-Burner  Gasoline  Stove 82 

60.  Tank  Fitting  Inside 82 

61.  A  Steam  Retort  for  Home  Canning 88 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

62.  A  Steam  Retort  for  Home  Canning   88 

63.  Another  Type,  Known  as  the  Water  Seal  Canner 88 

64.  Another  Steam-Pressure  Outfit  for  Home  Canning 89 

65.  Pressure  Cooker 90 

66.  Commercial  Retorts  where  the  Steam  is  Piped  in  from  the  Boiler     91 

67.  Household  Fruit- Juice  Press 94 

68.  Cloth  Press  Being  Twisted 96 

69.  Construction  of  a  Homemade  Fruit  Press   96 

70.  Fruit  Press  Ready  for  Use 97 

71.  Fruit  Press  in  Use   97 

72.  A  Homemade  Fruit-Juice  Filter 98 

73.  Bottling  Fruit  Juice 99 

74.  Making  Sealing  Wax 101 

75.  Screw-Cap  Bottle 102 

76.  A  Hand  Bottle  Sealing  Machine 102 

77.  Utensils  Used  in  Making  Muscadine  Syrup 107 

78.  Making  Vinegar  on  the  Farm 116 

79.  Fig  Packs 127 

80.  Attractive  Packs  of  Canned  Fruits:    (a)   Berries,   (6)   Pears,    (c) 

Fruit  Salad   127 

81.  A  Balling  Hydrometer 128 

82.  A  Brass  Cup  which  Can  be  Used  in  Place  of  Glass  Cylinder  for 

Testing  Density  of  Syrup  and  Brine 129 

83.  A  Demonstration  in  Canning,  Florida 130 

84.  Cleansing  Rubber  Ring 131 

85.  Fancy  Packs  of  Canned  Vegetables:    (A)   Baby  Beets,  (B)  Carrot 

Circles,   (C)  Log-Cabin  Pack  of  Beans,   (D)   Concentrated  Soup 

Mixture,    (E)   Okra. . 136 

86.  Roasting  and  Packing  Pimientos 141 

87.  Attractive  Pepper  Packs 142 

88.  Tomatoes  Packed  for  Salad 144 

89.  Vegetables  Packed  Fresh  for  Soup  Mixture 146 

90.  Packing  Watermelon  Rind  Preserves 149 

91.  A  Chemical  Thermometer — Centigrade 150 

92.  Cooling  and  Plumping  Preserved  Fruits   151 

93.  Packing  Preserved  Figs,  Walton  County,  Fla 152 

94.  Only  Freshly  Picked  Berries  Should  be  Preserved 153 

95.  A  Steam-Jacketed  Preserving  Kettle 161 

96.  Guava  Paste,  Served  with  Cheese  and  Crackers 172 

97.  A  Commercial  Jelly  Strainer  Placed  on  a  Chair  Back 175 

98.  A  Commercial  Jelly  Strainer  Placed  on  a  Table 175 

99.  Alcohol  Test  for   Pectin  in  Fruit  Juices 176 

100.  Testing  Fruit  Juice  for  Pectin 176 

101.  A  Saccharometer  Floating  in  a  250-c.c.  Cylinder 177 


SUCCESSFUL 
CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


CHAPTER    I 

HISTORY  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCIENTIFIC 

CANNING 

MOST  great  industries  have  existed  in  some  form  for  a  long 
period  of  time,  but  the  preservation  of  foodstuffs  by  canning  is 
distinctly  a  modern  art.  Men  turned  their  thoughts  at  a  very 
early  time  to  devising  means  of  preventing  foods  from  spoiling, 
but  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  only 
methods  employed  to  this  end  were  drying,  pickling,  smoking, 
and  preserving  in  sugar. 

French  Government  First  to  Discover  Method. — The  wars 
of  Napoleon  were  directly  responsible  for  the  discovery  of  the 
efficacy  of  the  hermetic  sealing  of  foods  in  order  to  keep  them. 
Near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  prize  was  offered  by 
the  French  Government  for  the  most  practical  method  of  pre- 
serving foods  for  sea  service  and  military  stores.  M.  Nicholas 
Appert,  of  Paris,  was  stimulated  by  this  offer  of  a  reward  and 
began  experimenting.  He  worked  from  1795  until  1809,  when 
he  submitted  to  his  government  a  treatise  on  the  means  of  pre- 
serving foods.  During  this  year  he  was  awarded  the  prize  of 
twelve  thousand  francs.  In  1810  he  published  the  results  of  his 
experiments. 

Appert's  Method.— -His  method  was  to  enclose  fruit,  after 
heating  it,  in  a  glass  bottle,  which  was  then  corked  and  sub- 
jected to  action  of  boiling  water.  The  bottle  was  placed  in  a 
water-bath  and  was  heated  very  gradually  for  varying  lengths  of 
time,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  food.  Appert  did  not 
know  why  foods  kept  when  treated  according  to  his  method.  He 
believed  that  air  was  the  destructive  agent  and  that  its  exclusion 


2  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

alone  would  preserve  ,food  which  had  been  cooked.  In  his 
treatise  he  wrote :  ' '  Absolute  privation  of  the  contact  of  external 
air  is  necessary  after  the  internal  air  is  rendered  of  no  effect  by 
proper  application  of  heat  by  means  of  a  water-bath. ' ' 

Past  Experiences  a  Background  for  Work. — Appert's  wide 
experience  in  life  excellently  equipped  him  to  solve  the  problem  to 
which  he  had  applied  himself  so  devotedly.  He  had  for  nearly 
fifty  years  been  dealing  with  various  lines  of  food  preservation, 
working  as  a  pickler,  a  preserver,  an  expert  confectioner,  a 
brewer,  a  distiller,  and  a  chef.  He  continued  his  efforts,  using 
many  different  products,  and  so  perfected  the  art  of  canning  in 
glass  that  it  is  difficult  to  surpass  it  even  in  these  times  with  all 
our  modern  appliances.  His  simple  utensils  and  process-room 
might  provoke  a  smile  to-day,  for  science  had  in  his  day  not 
really  determined  why  canned  food  kept ;  though  his  explanation 
has  proved  to  be  wrong,  his  methods,  oddly  enough,  worked. 

Investigations  Made  by  Guy  Lussac. — Conclusions  drawn 
by  Guy  Lussac,  an  eminent  French  chemist,  who  was  employed 
by  his  government  to  investigate  this  matter,  coincided  with 
what  appeared  to  be  the  controlling  factor  in  the  practice  of  can- 
ning. He  reported  that  spoiling  of  food  was  due  to  a  series  of 
oxidation  changes,  and  that  by  excluding  the  air  these  changes 
could  be  prevented  and  the  food  saved.  This  theory  was  ac- 
cepted, and  the  true  explanation  of  the  matter  was  not  known 
until  the  advent  of  the  new  science  of  bacteriology.  Since  the 
principle  of  Appert's  methods  has  been  shown  by  time  and  ex- 
perience to  be  correct,  it  is  that  on  which  all  canning  and  pre- 
serving have  since  been  done.  He  is  regarded  as  the  father  of 
an  art  which  has  proved  a  boon  to  all  mankind.  The  French 
Government  has  erected  a  monument  to  perpetuate  his  memory. 
His  method  was  so  simple  that  others  began  using  it  very  soon, 
and  before  1830  it  was  put  into  commercial  practice.  Appert  used 
an  open  water-bath  for  heating  his  bottles,  and  this  method  is 
one  in  common  use  to-day  in  home  canneries.  This  information 
on  canning  was  desired  primarily  for  military  and  naval  stores, 
but  the  a'dvantage  of  having  food  preserved  in  this  manner  at- 
tracted considerable  attention  to  its  use  in  the  home. 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING 


3 


Canning  Begun  in  England. — In  1807  a  paper  was  submitted 
by  Mr.  Sadding  to  the  English  Society  of  Arts,  under  the  title  "A 
Method  of  Preserving  Fruits  Without  Sugar  for  House  and  Sea 
Stores. "  It  is  believed  that  this  knowledge  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples was  obtained  from  Appert  while  Sadding  was  travelling 
in  France.  About  the 
same  time  Peter  Dur- 
rand  obtained  a  patent 
in  England  for  preserv- 
ing meat,  fruit,  and 
vegetables  in  tin  cans. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE 
TIN  CONTAINER 

The  canning  indus- 
try from  this  time  on 
depended  a  great  deal 
on  the  can;  in  fact,  it 
took  its  name  ' '  can- 
ning" from  it.  The  ap- 
paratus for  manufactur- 
ing tin  cans  was  at  first 
very  crude.  The  bodies 
were  cut  with  shears 
and  the  side  seams  made 
with  a  plumb  joint  and 
then  soldered  together. 
A  weight  was  pulled  up 
to  the  ceiling  and  al- 

lowed     tO     drop     Upon     a       FIG.   l.-Type  of  can  used  about  188* 

sheet  of  tin  in  order  to  cut  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  cans.  The 
die  was  cast  on  the  und"er  side  of  the  weight,  and  the  opposite  die 
was  cast  in  a  piece  of  metal  below.  The  forming  of  these  pieces 
depended  on  the  weight  being  properly  guided,  therefore  the  proc- 
ess was  slow  and  difficult.  Heads  or  caps  were  made  to  set  into 
the  body  and  were  soldered  in  place  by  hand  in  a  very  primitive 


4  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

way.  Necessity  has  never  more  truly  proved  its  title,  "The 
Mother  of  Invention,"  than  in  the  canning  line  (Fig.  1).  These 
cans  were  about  the  size  of  a  No.  2  can,  except  that  they  were 
taller.  From  the  crude  homemade  experimental  apparatus  there 
have  been  developed  for  the  purpose  of  the  canner  all  sorts  of 
machinery  and  appliances.  Now  all  parts  of  the  can  are  made  by 
labor-saving  machinery  and  put  together  by  machinery.  This 
method  reduces  their  cost  enormously  (Fig.  2).  Commercial 


FIG.  2. — Manufacturing  tin  cans  to-day.      (Heinz  Co.) 

houses  abandoned  glass  in  favor  of  tin  cans  because  they  would 
withstand  extremes  of  temperature  and  the  initial  cost  was  less. 
The  transportation  both  ways  on  the  tin  can  was  less  costly  and 
the  loss  from  breakage  was  eliminated.  Tin  is  probably  the  con- 
tainer used  almost  universally  by  canners  now,  although  glass  is 
popular  in  the  more  exclusive  canning  and  preserving  kitchens 
where  very  choice  special  products  are  put  up  into  fancy  packs. 
The  Real  Cause  of  Putrefaction. — During  the  time  of  Tyndall 
and  Pasteur,  1822  to  1895,  the  real  cause  of  putrefaction  was 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING  5 

determined  to  be  living  microorganisms  which  come  in  contact 
with  the  material  which  "spoils."  To  these  men  belongs  the 
honor  of  discovering  the  fundamental  principles  involved.  Now- 
adays it  is  understood  that  the  mere  presence  or  absence  of  air  in 
a  can  is  a  matter  of  no  importance  in  itself.  Air  plays  no  im- 
portant part  in  putrefaction  save  as  a  carrier  of  living  things, 
which  are  commonly  and  popularly  spoken  of  as  germs,  microbes, 
microorganisms,  or  bacteria.  All  of  these  terms  are  used  some- 
what indiscriminately  and  all  mean  practically  the  same  thing. 

DEVELOPMENT   OP   COMMERCIAL   CANNING   IN    AMERICA 

The  canning  industry  was  established  in  the  United  States  by 
Ezra  Daggett,  in  1819.  He  had  learned  the  trade  before  emi- 
grating to  this  country,  and  packed  salmon,  lobsters,  and  oysters 
in  New  York.  The  records  show  that  William  Underwood  packed 
preserves  and  table  condiments  in  glass  as  early  as  1821,  in  Bos- 
ton, and  in  1835  he  packed  tomatoes  in  glass.  The  records  also 
show  that  William  Underwood  shipped  his  goods  to  South 
America  in  1821.  In  1837  Isaac  Winslow  began  experimenting 
with  the  canning  of  corn  in  Portland,  Maine.  There  is  probably 
no  earlier  record  of  canning  in  tin  in  this  country  than  the  work 
of  Isaac  Winslow.  Corn  was  first  canned  on  the  cob.  This 
proved  unsatisfactory  on  account  of  the  bulk,  and  it  was  thought 
the  cob  absorbed  some  of  the  sweetness  from  the  kernels.  Maine 
was  the  home  of  the  corn  canning,  and  is  still  so  considered.  The 
first  cannery  in  Baltimore  was  opened  about  1840.  The  canning 
of  corn,  tomatoes,  and  fruits  was  started  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
about  1860.  The  growth  of  the  industry  was  very  rapid.  New 
canneries  sprang  up  like  mushrooms  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  unskilled  men  vied  with  the  older  packers  in  the  quantity 
put  out.  This  rapid  growth  resulted  in  the  formation  of  Can- 
ners '  Associations,  the  development  of  which  led  to  new  and  better 
methods  of  work. 

The  question  of  preservation  of  food  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting and  important  in  the  whole  field  of  applied  science.  H.  L. 
Russell,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  was  the  first  man  in  this 
country  to  apply  the  science  of  bacteriology  to  canning,  in  1895, 


Q  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

and  in  1896,  Prof.  S.  C.  Prescott,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  and  W.  L.  Underwood,  of  Boston,  began  investiga- 
tions regarding  the  bacteriological  technique  of  canning.  Until 
this  time  the  commercial  art  of  canning  was  a  mixed  lot  of  theory 
hedged  about  by  mystery. 

Theory  of  Canning  Not  Understood. — Factories  were  jeal- 
ously guarded.  It  was  almost  impossible  for  an  outsider  to  gain 
admission.  The  canner  really  knew  so  little  about  the  science 
that  he  felt  compelled  to  guard  carefully  his  ignorance.  He 
tried  to  throw  a  glamour  of  secrecy  over  nearly  every  move- 
ment simply  through  caution  to  protect  what  little  good  informa- 
tion he  possessed  regarding  the  process  of  canning.  The  uncer- 
tainty and  the  possibilities  that  losses  might  occur  were  a  constant 
source  of  worry  and  uneasiness  to  a  great  many  who  were  en- 
gaged in  the  canning  business.  The  general  public  had  a  very 
vague  knowledge  in  regard  to  bacteria.  Most  people  associated 
them  only  with  disease.  Canners  were  loath  to  have  the  subject 
of  canning  connected  with  germs,  because  they  believed  this 
would  frighten  people,  who  would  then  not  wish  to  eat  any  more 
canned  goods.  If  a  season  came  in  which  bacteria  seemed  un- 
usually prevalent,  the  canners  considered  it  most  mysterious  and 
attributed  it  to  the  * '  strange  season. ' '  Since  science  has  brought 
to  us  the  knowledge  of  microorganisms  the  lines  of  attack  have 
become  more  clearly  marked,  and  with  the  modern  weapons  to 
combat  the  foe  we  can  fight  the  war  against  bacteria  with  safety 
and  assurance  of  success.  The  principal  weapon  of  defence 
against  bacterial  action  is  the  practice  of  most  scrupulous  cleanli- 
ness ;  just  as  modern  surgery  depends  upon  absolute  cleanliness. 
Like  most  other  manufacturing  industries  carried  on  by  enter- 
prising men,  the  process  of  canning  has  undergone  complete 
change  as  the  scientific  principles  involved  have  come  to  be  under- 
stood and  to  be  given  a  controlling  power  over  the  practical  proc- 
esses involved. 

Location  of  Industry  (Figs.  3  and  4). — Large  quantities  of 
vegetables,  meat,  and  fish  are  preserved  along  the  Atlantic  Coast ; 
much  of  the  salmon  supply  is  canned  in  Oregon  and  Washington ; 
meats  are  put  up  largely  in  Chicago  and  Kansas  City,  and  fruits 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING 


and  vegetables  of  the  highest  grade  are  packed  in  California, 
Hawaii,  and  New  York.  Maryland  and  New  Jersey  rank  very 
high  in  the  production  of  canned  tomatoes.  Maine  and  Illinois 
lead  in  corn  canning.  The  development  in  the  canning  industry 
in  the  ten-year  period  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  charts  and 
is  largely  due  to  improved  machinery. 

MILLIONS   OF   DOLLARS 


Illinois 
Hans  as 
Nert  York 
Nebraska 
Missouri 


Ohio 

Indiana 

Massachusetts 

Texas 

Neu)Jersey 

California 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Washington 

Maryland 

Michigan 


FIQ.  3. — Chart  showing  comparison  of  value  of  meat  products  by  states  in  1899  and  1909, 
(Thirteenth  Census  of  U.S.,  Vol.  VIII,  1910.) 

A  striking  illustration  of  growth  in  the  canning  industry  is 
the  rapid  development  of  the  pineapple  canning  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  indicated  by  the  following  table: 

1901 2,000  cases 

1908   410,000  cases 

1913   1,667,000  cases 

This  volume  of  business  is  the  combined  output  of  ten  sepa- 
rate companies.  These  results  show  the  quick  appreciation  of 
a  really  good  product  by  the  consuming  public.  In  the  first  can- 


8 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


ning  large  quantities  of  juice  were  lost  when  the  prime  ripe  fruit 
was  sliced.  Recently  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  juice  con- 
tains seven  per  cent  of  sugar  and  can  be  concentrated  and  used 
for  syrup  in  canning  pineapple,  thus  saving  the  purchase  of  large 
quantities  of  sugar. 

Better  Equipment  Invented. — When  corn  canning  was  first 
begun,  the  corn  was  cut  from  the  cob  with  a  common  case-knife ; 


MILLIONS   OF   DOLLARS 


California 

New  York 

Man/ I  and 

Washington 

Pennsyli)arii( 

Indiana 

Maine 

Illinois 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Ohio 

NevJ  Jersey 

Oreyon 

lorfa 

Delaware 

Kentucky 

Virginia 

Missouri 

Colorado 

Minnesota 

Utah, 


FIG.  4. — A  chart  showing  comparison  of  value  of  canned  and  preserved  products  by  states 
in  1899  and  1909.      (Thirteenth  Census  of  U.  S.,  Vol.  VIII,  1910.) 

then  came  the  use  of  a  curved  form  shaped  to  the  ear.  At  this 
stage  of  development  "cutters"  were  the  most  numerous  body  of 
workmen  about  the  factory.  For  instance,  in  1869,  800  hands 
were  employed  in  a  factory :  375  were  cutters  and  about  100  husk- 
ers.  Machines  run  by  hand  came  in  about  1875.  Power  machines 
came  into  use  about  1886.  Much  improvement  has  been  made  on 
all  machinery  since  that  date.  In  canning  corn,  for  example, 
among  the  most  important  machinery  are  those  which  husk  the 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING  9 

corn,  take  off  the  silk,  cut  kernels  from  the  cob,  fill  the  cans,  seal 
the  cans,  put  on  labels,  etc.  Different  machines  are  made  to  fit 
into  the  work  of  other  machines  so  the  various  processes  of  han- 
dling one  product  will  be  continuous.  These  machines  are  now 
perfected  in  all  details  and  are  operated  automatically.  The 
capacity  is  immense  for  carrying  products  through  the  different 
departments  in  a  very  short  time. 

Processing  Methods  (Fig.  5). — In  the  early  days  of  this  in- 
dustry the  open-kettle  method  was  used.  The  highest  obtainable 
temperature  was  212°  Fahrenheit,  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water.  It  was  soon  realized  that  a  higher  temperature  would  kill 
more  "germs"  and  insure  more  successful  results  in  a  shorter 
length  of  time.  A  little  later  a  higher  degree  of  temperature  was 
secured  by  the  addition  of  common  salt  to  the  water-bath.  Fol- 
lowing this  another  method  of  obtaining  a  higher  degree  of  heat 
came  into  favor.  It  was  found  that  by  adding  chloride  of  cal- 
cium to  water  the  specific  gravity  of  water  was  increased  and  a 
temperature  of  240°  Fahrenheit  was  obtainable  without  ebulli- 
tion. The  advantage  claimed  for  this  method  was  that  it  was 
fuel-saving  and  labor-saving.  Under  this  process,  however,  the 
cans  became  discolored  and  considerable  expense  was  incurred  in 
cleaning  them.  With  the  coming  of  the  " steam- jacketed"  copper 
kettles  and  the  "closed-process"  kettle  these  previously  described 
methods  of  sterilizing  were  abandoned,  except  for  the  plain  water- 
bath,  which  is  still  in  use.  The  steam- jacketed  kettle  is  one  in 
which  a  kettle  is  surrounded  by  a  metallic  chamber  like  the  com- 
mon double-boiler  kettle,  except  that  the  outer  chamber  is  air- 
tight and  superheated  steam  is  piped  into  it  from  a  boiler,  thus 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  cooking  kettle  considerably  above 
212°.  Such  steam- jacketed  kettles  are  commonly  used  in  large- 
quantity  cookery,  as  in  hotel  kitchens  and  industries  like  dyeing 
and  soap  making,  as  well  as  in  canning.  The  closed-process  kettle 
is  simply  a  kettle  for  boiling  which  can  itself  be  closed  tightly  so 
as  to  prevent  all  escape  of  steam;  the  heat  which  ordinarily 
escapes  from  the  water  as  the  steam  arises  is  thus  kept  within  the 
water  and  in  the  superheated  body  of  steam  in  the  closed  cham- 
ber above  it,  and  so  the  temperature  rises  above  212°  With  the 


10 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


introduction  of  steam  retorts  in  1897  the  time  for  sterilizing  was 
shortened.  Next  came  the  present  style  of  kettle  and  dry  steam. 
Latest  Processor. — The  agitating  cooker  is  perhaps  the  latest 
development.  Bulky  starch  products  are  poor  conductors  of 
heat,  and  it  requires  a  long  time  for  the  heat  to  penetrate  to  the 
center  of  the  contents.  The  time  for  processing  can  be  greatly 
reduced  by  causing  the  cans  to  roll  over  and  over  in  such  a  man- 


FIG.  5. — A  processing  device  for  home  canning  proposed  in  1889. 

ner  that  the  liquid  present  within  each  can  will  be  carried  more 
quickly  through  the  mass  and  the  contents  will  be  gently  moved 
to  the  inside  surface  of  the  can,  where  they  become  heated  more 
rapidly.  It  is  necessary  that  this  agitation  be  slow  and  even. 

Other  Labor-saving  Devices. — There  are  machines  for  almost 
every  step  of  the  handling  of  different  fruits  and  vegetables  for 
canning;  conveyors,  sheet-iron  tunnels  where  jets  of  water  are 
constantly  running  to  wash  the  product,  sorters,  peelers,  slicers, 
fillers,  and  cappers;  these  and  many  other  machines  are  avail- 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING  11 

able,  and  all  are  labor-saving  and  space-saving  as  well.  The  result 
of  this  application  of  machines  and  power  is  that  a  great  quantity 
of  products  can  be  handled  in  a  very  short  time. 

Greater  Demand  for  Canned  Foods. — In  1890  there  were 
about  one  thousand  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry  and 
the  value  of  the  output  was  a  little  less  than  $45,000,000.  In 
1916  the  output  for  domestic  consumption  was  thirteen  times  this 
amount.  The  consumption  of  canned  products  has  increased 
yearly,  largely  because  the  prices  have  been  reduced  as  the  com- 
mercial process  has  been  perfected,  thus  coming  within  reach  of 
a  larger  number  of  people.  It  has  been  said  that  in  1857  a  quart 
of  tomatoes  sold  for  50  cents  and  a  quart  of  peaches  for  $1. 
Nathan  Winslow  sold  to  Samuel  S.  Pierce,  of  Boston,  one  dozen 
canisters  of  preserved  corn  for  $4  in  February,  1848.  The  public 
has  been  informed  through  reports  and  investigations  and 
through  the  advertising  world  that  the  conditions  under  which 
reliable  concerns  work  are  sanitary  and  that  canned  food  prod- 
ucts are  as  desirable  in  their  place  as  are  fresh  foods ;  the  more 
the  public  becomes  aware  of  these  facts  the  greater  is  the  demand 
for  this  class  of  food.  Reduced  prices  and  a  buying  public 
educated  to  the  real  value  of  canned  foods  explain  the  greater 
demand  for  them. 

Consumption  and  Estimated  Value  of  Canned  Foods  in 
1916. — A  report  which  was  given  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
National  Canners'  Association  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  February, 
1916,  will  be  of  interest  here  to  show,  to  some  extent,  the  use  of 
canned  food  in  the  United  States.  Three  billion  cans  of  food  are 
retailed  yearly  at  about  $600,000,000.  The  consumption  of  corn 
is  estimated  to  be  100,000,000  cans  annually ;  of  peas,  200,000,000, 
and  of  tomatoes,  350,000,000.  New  York  City  spends  yearly  at 
retail  over  $64,000,000  for  milk,  $45,000,000  for  bread,  $45,000,- 
000  for  eggs,  and  for  canned  goods  over  $150,000,000 — almost  as 
much  as  for  milk,  bread,  and  eggs  combined.  In  1916  the  report 
of  the  Canning  Club  girls  and  Home  Demonstration  Clubs  in  the 
South  showed  3,318,481  containers  put  up  for  home  use  and  for 
the  market.  In  the  North  and  West  7903  Canning  Club  members 
put  up  201,306  containers  in  1916.  This  is,  of  course,  only  a  very 


1£  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

small  percentage  of  the  full  amount  of  such  products  put  up  in 
the  homes  of  the  country.  The  economic  significance  of  the  use  of 
canned  foods  has  grown  to  such  proportions  that  it  cannot  be 
ignored  by  the  housewife  or  by  the  nation. 

It  is  important  to  have  vegetables  and  fruits  in  the  diet,  but 
it  is  impossible  to  have  them  fresh  at  all  seasons,  especially  with 
the  difficulty  of  distribution  and  transportation  of  foods  in  thickly 
populated  areas.  The  problem  of  extending  the  supplies  from 
season  to  season  must  necessarily  be  met  by  preservation  of  foods. 
The  composition  and  their  importance  in  the  diet  place  them 
among  staple  foods  rather  than  as  accessories  in  the  diet.  A 
judicious  amount  of  fruits,  vegetables,  meats,  and  whole  cereals 
mingled  with  the  canned  products  will  doubtless  furnish  the 
necessary  supply  of  "vitamins,"  growth-promoting  substances, 
which  recent  investigations  indicate  are  essential  to  good  health. 

United  States  Government  Publication. — The  United  States 
Government  has  many  persons  employed  to  work  out  some  of  the 
problems  that  perplex  the  preservers  of  food.  These  people  have 
been  studying  for  years  and  experimenting  along  these  lines.  Bul- 
letins have  been  printed  on  the  subject  which  can  be  secured 
free,  or  at  a  very  small  cost.  Many  housekeepers  are  now  eagerly 
seeking  this  information.  Laws  also  have  been  passed  to  attempt 
to  regulate  the  methods  of  preparation  of  canned  foods.  People 
have  gradually  acquainted  themselves  with  the  ways  in  which 
bacteria  work  for  our  good  or  ill,  and  it  is  no  longer  necessary 
to  whisper  when  discussing  their  effect  on  canned  goods.  It  is 
known  that  useful  " germs"  greatly  outnumber  the  harmful 
ones.  Since  we  could  not  exist  without  the  action  of  bacteria,  we 
must  regard  them  as  our  friends  rather  than  our  foes,  even  though 
there  are  a  few  species  which  might  do  us  injury. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  proof  can  you  give  that  canned  goods  hold  to-day  a  large  place 

in  the  food  supply  of  our  large  cities  as  well  as  in  portions  of  the 
country  remote  from  the  centers  of  population? 

2.  Why   is  it  impossible  to   collect   statistics   of   the   value   of   the   foods 

canned  annually  in  the  United  States? 


HISTORY  OF  SCIENTIFIC  CANNING  13 

3.  Why  is  the  study  of  the  canning  of  foods  a  legitimate  work  for  the 

United  States  Government? 

4.  What  large  classes  in  the  community  may  be  helped  by  the  knowledge 

of  canning  disseminated  by  the  government? 

5.  What  forces  have  made  possible  the  extensive  use  of  canned  foods? 

6.  What  has  determined  the  locations  of  the  canneries? 

7.  State  chronologically  the  different  processing  methods  used,  giving  a 

brief  explanation  of  each. 

8.  What  is  the  principle  to  which  each  process  conforms? 

9.  To  what  science  are  we  indebted  for  the  explanation  of  the  results  ob- 

tained in  canning? 

10.  What  is  the  meaning  of  putrefaction?    What  is  its  cause? 

11.  To  whom   are  we   indebted   for  the   explanation   of   putrefaction?     To 

whom  indebted  for  the  application  of  scientific  explanations  to  can- 
ning? 

12.  To  whom  are  we  indebted   for  the  discovery  of  canning?     What  his- 

torical events  led  to  this  discovery?  Give  approximate  date. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  BITTING,  A.  W.  and  K.  G.,  "  Canning  and  How  to  Use  Canned  Foods," 

1916.     National  Canners'  Association,  \Vashington,  D.  C.     30  cents. 

2.  Bureau   of  the   Census,   Statistics   for   Canning   and   Preserving,    1910, 

Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States  Manufacturers,  1909.  Can 
be  purchased  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

3.  CORBETT,  FLORENCE  R.,  "  Fruits  and  Vegetables,"  Technical  Education 

Bulletin  No.  18,  February,  1913.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York  City,  N.  Y.  10  cents. 

4.  DEMING,  OLIN  LEE,  "  Science  and  Experiment  as  Applied  to  Canning," 

1902.     Sprague  Canning  Machinery  Company,  Chicago,  111. 

5.  DUCKWALL,  EDWARD  WILEY,  "  Canning  and  Preserving  of  Food  Products 

with  Bacteriological  Technique,"  1905.  Pittsburgh  Printing  Com- 
pany, Pittsburgh,  Pa.  $5. 

6.  FISHER,  IRVING,  and  FISK,  E.  L.,  "How  to  Live,"  1915.    The  Funk  & 

Wagnalls  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.    $1. 

7.  HUNT,  A.  L.,  "  Canning  and  Preserving,"  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United 

States  Manufacturers,  vol.  9,  part  3,  1900,  pages  461  to  514.  Super- 
intendent of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
D.C. 

8.  MENDEL,    LAFAYETTE    BENEDICT,   "  Changes   in   the   Food    Supply    and 

Their  Relation  to  Nutrition,"  1916.  Yale  University  Press,  New 
Haven,  Conn.  50  cents. 

9.  MENDEL,  LAFAYETTE  BENEDICT,  "  Childhood  and  Growth,"  1906.     The 

F.  A.  Stokes  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     60  cents. 


14  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

10.  SHERMAN,  HENRY  CLAPP,  "  Food  Products,"  1914.    The  Macmillan  Com- 

pany, New  York  City,  N.  Y.    $2.25. 

11.  SHRIVER,    J.    ALEXUS,    "Pineapple    Canning    Industry    of    the   World," 

Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  U.   S.  Department  of 
Labor. 

12.  The  Pierce  Publishing  Company,   Inc.,   The  National  Food  Magazine, 

45  West  Thirty-fourth  Street,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.    $1.50  a  year. 

13.  The  Trade  Company,  Baltimore,  Md.,  The  Canning  Trade  (a  magazine), 

almanac  of  the  canning  industry.     $3. 

14.  VULTE,  HERMAN  THEODORE,  and  VANDERBILT,  SADIE  BIRD,  "  Food  In- 

dustries/* 1916.     Chemical  Publishing  Company,  Easton,  Pa.     $2. 

15.  WARD,   ARTEMAS,    Grocers'   Encyclopaedia,    1011.       Artemas    Ward,    50 

Union  Square,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.    $10. 


CHAPTER    II 
BACTERIOLOGY  AS  APPLIED  TO  CANNING 

SCIENTISTS  have  established  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  decom- 
position of  food  is  due  to  the  presence  of  living  organisms  which 
cause  fermentation  and  putrefaction.  These  organisms  are 
molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  and  belong  to  the  lowest  order  of 
plants.  The  presence  of  all  or  any  of  these  types  of  germs  on  food 
is  the  principal  cause  of  its  spoiling.  Similar  microorganisms! 
exist  in  teeming  millions  and  are  present  everywhere.  They  are! 
in  the  water  we  drink,  in  the  soil,  floating  about  in  the  air  we 
breathe,  and  on  all  objects.  All  of  these  except  mold  are  so 
minute  as  to  be  invisible  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope. 
Molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria  differ  from  the  plants  with  which  we 
are  more  familiar  in  that  they  are  unable  to  manufacture  their 
own  food  out  of  the  air  and  the  soil  as  the  green  plants  do.  These 
types  contain  no  chlorophyll  or  green  coloring  matter,  and  must 
therefore  get  their  food  from  substances  already  built  up  by 
higher  plants  or  animals.  These  colorless  plants  are  generally 
grouped  by  botanists  under  the  division  "  fungi,"  though  the 
bacteria  are  strictly  separated  from  the  yeasts  and  molds.  Both 
the  chlorophyll-bearing  and  the  colorless  plants  embrace  those 
that  are  parasites  and  others  that  are  saprophytes.  The  para- 
sites live  upon  live  animals  and  plants ;  the  saprophytes  live 
upon  dead  animals  and  plants,  and  it  is  this  class,  therefore, 
which  concerns  us  in  canning. 

Some  people  do  canning  and  preserving  of  foods  successfully 
with  little  knowledge  of  these  germs,  but  to  know  something  about 
these  minute  forms  of  life,  which  are  so  abundant  everywhere, 
will  make  the  work  more  interesting.  When  it  is  understood 
why  foods  keep,  uniform  results  may  be  more  easily  obtained. 

Molds. — The  molds,  unlike  yeasts  and  bacteria,  are  visible  to 

15 


K 


FIG.  6. — Parasitic  organisms.  In  the  following  figures  ha  denotes  aerial  hyphae;  sp. 
sporangium;  zy,  zygospore;  ex,  exosporium;  my,  mycelium;  me,  mucilage;  cl,  columella;  en, 
endogonidia. 

FIG.  A.  Spore-bearing  hyphse  of  Mucor,  growing  from  horse-dung.  FIG.  B.  The  same, 
teased  out  with  needles  (A,  4).  FIGS.  C,  D,  E.  Successive  stages  in  the  development  of  the 
sporangium.  FIG.  F.  Isolated  spores  of  Mucor.  FIG.  G.  Germinating  spores  of  the  same 
mold.  FIG.  H.  Successive  stages  in  the  germination  of  a  single  spore.  FIGS.  I,  J,  K.  Suc- 
cessive phases  in  the  conjugative  process  of  Mucor.  FIG.  L.  Successive  stages  observed 
during  ten  hours  in  the  growth  of  a  conidiophore  of  Penicillium  in  an  object-glass  culture  (D,4). 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  17 

the  naked  eye.  They  are  considered  first  because  most  house- 
keepers and  students  in  home  economics  are  familiar  with  them  in 
their  growing  stage.  Molds  require  oxygen,  considerable  ™™>jjira -^ 
and  heat,  and  use  sugar  and  starches  as  food ;  moreover,  they  can 
grow  in  the  presence  of  acids.  They  thrive  in  damp,  dark  places 
where  there  is  little  or  110  circulation  of  air.  Because  they  have 
the  ability  to  grow  in  acids  molds  readily  attack  fruits  and  to- 
matoes. At  first  in  general  appearance  molds  are  gray,  soft,  and 
fluffy;  later  they  show  colors,  as  blue,  green,  brown,  black,  or 
yellow.  The  color  appears  when  the  molds  are  reproducing. 
Under  a  microscope  the  minute,  thread-like  mass  of  mold  found 
upon  jelly  or  bread  shows  a  mycelium  or  root-like  structure  ex- 
tending into  the  food  upon  which  it  grows.  The  upward-growing 
branches  bear  special  spore  organs  which  contain  thousands  of 
seed-like  spores.  The  spores  drop  from  the  mold  plant  and  float 
unseen  to  other  places.  They  grow  with  great  rapidity.  The 
kinds  reproducing  yellow  and  green  spores  are  sometimes  found 
on  jellies,  preserves,  and  dry  meats.  They  are  first  green  and 
then  yellow.  Brown  mold  is  found  in  putrefaction  of  fruit.  Cer- 
tain types  of  food  materials,  particularly  the  fruits,  are  most  apt 
to  be  attacked  by  molds  such  as  Penicillium  and  Aspergillus  (Figs. 
7  and  9 ) .  These  molds  do  not  develop  unless  there  is  oxygen  pres- 
ent. These  mold  spores  being  abundant  in  the  air,  it  is  impossible 
to  leave  food  exposed  without  having  a  number  of  living  spores 
fall  upon  it.  If  fruit  is  opened,  partly  used,  and  the  jar  is  simply 
covered  again,  the  fruit  will  soon  mold,  due  to  the  mold  spores 
which  enter  while  it  is  open.  If  this  fruit  is  to  be  kept  it  should 
be  reheated  and  sealed  to  exclude  the  air.  Usually  the  mold  is 
confined  to  the  surface,  but  the  decomposition  products  of  its 
growth  frequently  penetrate  and  flavor  the  whole  mass.  At  one 
time  it  was  believed  by  some  housekeepers  that  a  thick  layer  of 
mold  on  the  top  of  crocks  and  jars  containing  jams  and  pre- 
serves was  a  good  indication  of  its  keeping,  because  this  layer  of 
mold  excluded  the  air  from  the  contents  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
container.  When  these  jars  were  opened  it  was  necessary  to 
throw  away  several  inches  of  the  food  which  was  next  to  the  mold 
and  sometimes  nearly  half  of  it.  As  the  food  stood  with  this 
2 


18 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


heavy  layer  of  mold  the  odors  and  flavor  permeated  the  balance 
of  the  contents  of  the  jar,  and  the  product  when  served  was  not 
so  palatable  and  wholesome  as  it  would  have  been  had  it  been 
sealed  air-tight  and  processed  when  first  put  up  (Fig.  8).  In 
addition,  all  waste  of  food  is  thus  avoided. 

Molds  are  easily  killed  by  moist  heat.    A  temperature  of  160° 
to  180°  Fahrenheit  will  be  sufficient  to  kill  all  mold.    When  food 


FIG.  7. — Aspergillus  fumigatus  (appears  on  tomato  sauces  and  preserves). 

is  sterilized,  packed  into  jars  or  cans,  and  sealed  immediately  to 
protect  it,  mold  will  not  appear  so  long  as  the  containers  remain 
air-tight.  If  the  top  of  jelly  is  wiped  off  with  alcohol  this  will 
kill  some  of  the  spores.  Sometimes  a  circular  disc  of  paper  which 
has  been  dipped  into  alcohol  is  placed  over  the  jelly  before  the 
cap  is  placed  on  the  glass.  Often  a  thin  layer  of  melted  paraffin 
is  poured  over  the  top  of  the  jelly.  Either  method  will  kill  any 
mold  spores  which  might  have  fallen  on  the  jelly  while  it  was 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING 


19 


open  and  cooling.     Immediately  after  so  treating  the  jelly  it 
should  be  covered  to  exclude  the  air  (Figs.  6  and  9). 

Yeast. — The  yeast  plants  are  not  difficult  to  control  in  can- 
ning. Yeasts  are  the  natural  agents  which  produce  fermenta- 
tion. As  this  word  is  commonly  used  it  refers  to  the  process  by 


FIG.  8. — Bacillus  found  on  tomatoes,  showing  flagellse,  thread-like  appendages. 

which  alcoholic  liquors  are  produced  from  sugar  solutions.  Fer- 
mentation is  the  basis  of  producing  stimulating  beverages. 
Methods  of  raising  yeast  bread  are  also  examples  of  fermentation. 
It  is  always  the  sugars  present  in  these  substances  which  undergo 
the  fermentation. 

Yeasts  are  one-celled  plants.     They  reproduce  by  budding; 
that  is,  by  the  growth  of  a  bud  on  the  side  of  the  cell.    This  bud 


20         SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

becomes  fully  developed  very  quickly  and  separates  itself  from 
the  mother-cell,  and  after  attaining  the  adult  stage  begins  to 
reproduce  itself  in  a  similar  manner.  Yeasts,  under  adverse  con- 
ditions, sometimes  reproduce  by  forming  spores  within  the  cells. 
The  cell  bursts  and  the  wind  carries  the  spores  everywhere.  The 
use  of  yeast  in  bread  making  is  familiar.  When  given  food  (in 
form  of  sugar) ,  warmth,  moisture,  and  air,  yeasts  grow,  breaking 
up  the  sugar  and  producing  a  gas,  called  carbon  dioxide,  and 
alcohol.  Bubbles  of  this  gas  may  be  seen  when  a  can  of  fruit  fer- 


FIG.  9. — Penicillium  ylaucum  (a  common  mold)(X  500).     (Frenkel  and  Pfeiffer.) 

ments.  Since  yeasts  are  abundant  in  the  air  and  on  the  skins 
of  fruits  and  vegetables,  it  is  always  necessary  both  to  destroy 
them  on  the  food  being  canned  and  to  prevent  their  further  en- 
trance into  the  sterilized  foods  by  sealing  the  containers  air- 
tight. Yeasts  are  easily  killed  by  moist  heat  at  a  temperature  of 
160°  to  190°  Fahrenheit.  Occasionally  spores,  which  are  more 
resistant  than  active  plants,  may  be  present.  The  organisms  de- 
scribed above  are  not  difficult  to  control  (Fig.  10). 

Bacteria. — Bacteria  are  the  most  serious  foes  to  combat  in 
canning  because  they  are  more  difficult  to  kill  by  heat  than 
either  molds  or  yeasts.  They  are  present  everywhere  in  enormous 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING 


21 


numbers.  They  are  also  unicellular  plants,  but  are  smaller  than 
yeasts.  A  young  bacterium  cell  attains  full  size  and  acquires  the 
capacity  to  reproduce  itself  much  more  rapidly  than  any  other 
form  of  life.  So  rapid  is  their  reproduction  that  a  single  bac- 
terium may  produce  millions  more  in  a  few  hours.  The  rapidly 
multiplying  bacteria  often  form  more  or  less  colorless  viscous 
masses  or  a  thin  scum  float- 
ing on  the  liquid  in  which 
they  are  growing.  Similar 
masses  form  the  green  scum 
sometimes  seen  on  stagnant 
water,  due  to  the  growth  of 
a  microscopic  plant,  the 
Spirogyra. 

Bacteria  require  for 
their  growth  warmth, 
moisture,  and  food.  Many 
kinds  of  bacteria  prefer 
protein  food.  Food  for 
bacteria  is  not  necessarily 
of  a  highly  complicated 
nature.  Many  species  will 
find  the  right  conditions 
for  nourishment  and 
growth  if  a  small  amount 
of  protein  and  some  water 
are  present.  Since  few 
bacteria  thrive  in  acids  or 
in  the  presence  of  much  sugar,  their  destruction  is  less  difficult 
in  fruits  and  tomatoes  than  in  vegetables  such  as  corn,  peas,  and 
beans,  or  in  meats,  which  are  the  most  difficult  of  all  foods  to 
can  safely  in  the  home. 

Bacteria  in  the  growing  state  can  be  killed  by  subjecting  them 
to  moist  heat  at  boiling  temperature  for  variable  lengths  of  time. 
Moist  heat  is  far  more  effective  than  dry  heat.  Many  kinds  of 
bacteria  have  the  power  under  adverse  conditions  of  producing 
spores  which  are  much  more  resistant  than  the  vegetative  or  ac- 


FIG.  10. — Various  stages  in  the  development 
of  brewer's  yeast,  seen,  with  the  exception  of  the 
first  in  the  series,"  with  an  ordinary  high  power 
(Zeiss,  D.  4)  of  the  microscope.  The  first  is  greatly 
magnified  (Gundlach's  1-16  immersion  lens).  The 
second  series  of  four  represents  stages  in  the  divi- 
sion of  a  single  cell;  and  the  third  series  a  branching 
colony.  Everywhere  the  light-areas  indicate 
vacuolep. 


22         SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

tively  reproducing  form  in  which  the  bacteria  ordinarily  are 
found.  Bacteria  produce  spores  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  un- 
favorable conditions,  and  in  this  resting  stage  the  living  matter 
may  lie  dormant  for  a  long  time,  as  it  were,  awaiting  favorable 
conditions  under  which  the  vegetative  rapid  reproduction  form 
can  be  resumed.  These  spores  may  be  compared  to  the  seeds  of 
higher  plants  in  their  ability  to  withstand  unfavorable  condi- 
tions. While  most  of  the  bacteria  which  do  not  produce  spores 
can  be  killed  at  a  temperature  of  140°  to  180°  Fahrenheit,  it 
is  a  well-known  fact  that  some  spores  are  able  to  resist  heat  at 
boiling  temperature  for  sixteen  hours  or  more.  Many  bacteria 
show  great  adaptability  to  temperature  conditions.  Drying  or 
dehydration  for  a  long  period  of  time  will  kill  many  organisms, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  spores  may  withstand  drying  for  years. 
Sterilization  to  kill  spores  as  well  as  the  ordinary  bacteria  forms 
may  be  accomplished  by  applying  boiling  temperature  for  a  cer- 
tain length  of  time  on  each  of  three  successive  days.  Certain 
resistant  spores  will  germinate  within  twelve  to  twenty-four 
hours  after  the  first  treatment;  but  heating  on  the  second  day 
will  kill  these ;  and  the  third  treatment  is  a  safeguard  which  will 
destroy  all  remaining  "germs"  in  most  cases.  This  intermittent 
or  repeated  sterilization  with  a  constant  temperature  of  212° 
Fahrenheit  is  perhaps  a  safer  method  and  will  assure  success 
more  often  than  a  single  period  of  sterilization  at  the  same  tem- 
perature for  a  longer  length  of  time. 

Almost  all  the  bacteria  which  are  so  resistant  to  heat  when  in 
the  spore  state  are  abundant  in  cultivated  soil  and  therefore  pres- 
ent in  pods,  husks,  and  different  parts  of  such  vegetables  as 
corn,  peas,  and  beans,  which  contain  food  upon  which  the  spore- 
bearing  forms  thrive.  The  presence  of  these  bacteria  upon  the 
parts  of  vegetables  to  be  canned  is  therefore  almost  inevitable. 
The  difficulty  of  sterilization  is  increasingly  great  when  such 
vegetables  have  been  bruised,  allowed  to  stand,  or  have  in  them 
decayed  portions.  When  fruit  skin  is  broken,  molds  fall  to  work 
and  open  the  way  for  bacteria  to  enter  and  start  the  decay.  If 
the  juices  of  these  plants  become  infected  with  spores  of  these 
various  species,  the  problem  of  sterilization  is  more  difficult. 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  33 

All  bacteria  in  the  spore  state  can  also  be  destroyed  by  sub- 
jecting them  to  a  temperature  of  240°  to  250°  Fahrenheit,  moist 
heat,  but  special  apparatus,  as  the  steam-pressure  canner,  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  such  temperatures.  For  this  reason  the  method 
known  as  intermittent  sterilization  finds  wide  use  among  house- 
keepers and  Canning  Club  members  who  do  not  possess  steam- 
pressure  canners.  This  method  of  fractional  sterilization  consists 
of  applying  boiling  temperature  to  vegetables,  already  packed  in 
glass  or  tin,  for  a  certain  period  on  each  of  three  successive  days, 
sealing  the  jar  immediately  after  each  boiling  or  "processing" 
if  the  lid  has  been  loosened  to  take  care  of  the  expansion  caused 
by  the  heat.  Between  each  daily  processing  the  containers  are 
kept  at  ordinary  temperatures,  under  which  the  spores  not  killed 
by  boiling  develop  into  the  more  easily  killed  vegetative  or  grow- 
ing state,  which1  are  then  destroyed  by  the  next  period  of  boiling. 
If  spores  are  present  in  the  jars  or  cans,  rarely  do  they  fail  to 
thus  develop  and  be  destroyed  by  the  third  processing  (Fig.  11). 
For  peas  and  corn,  properly  selected  and  handled  carefully,  proc- 
essing for  one  hour  in  a  water-bath  at  boiling  on  the  first  day, 
and  repeated  on  the  second  and  third  days,  will  ordinarily  steril- 
ize these  foods  in  quart  jars  or  No.  2  cans.  The  flavor  of  such 
vegetables  thus  processed  is  considered  by  many  to  be  finer  than 
when  the  vegetables  are  subjected  to  very  high  temperatures,  as 
in  the  steam-pressure  cookers.  Treatment  for  one  hour  on  three 
successive  days  is  perhaps  the  safest  method  to  follow  with  hot- 
water  canners,  when  canning  such  vegetables  as  sweet  potatoes, 
peas,  corn,  beans,  etc.  It  is  dangerous  to  use  minimum  periods  of 
processing,  because  during  some  seasons  there  are  occasional ' '  out- 
breaks ' '  where  fields  are  infected  with  an  unusual  type  or  a  larger 
number  of  bacteria  than  ordinarily  exist'  Some  fertilizers  cause 
the  fibers  of  plants  to  toughen,  and  it  is  more  difficult  for  heat  to 
penetrate  them,  therefore  a  longer  sterilization  period  is  required. 
Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
such  danger  by  cleanliness,  careful  handling,  and  rapid  working 
from  one  stage  to  another  during  the  entire  process  of  canning. 

Enzymes. — In  addition  to  the  action  of  "germs"  or  minute 
organisms,  the  spoiling  of  fruits  and  vegetables  is  hastened  by 


24  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

natural  changes,  which  result  from  the  action  of  enzymes  or  unor- 
ganized fermenting  agents  found  in  nature  (the  pepsin  of  the 
stomach  is  an  illustration)  which,  while  not  cellular  organism  like 
bacteria,  do  break  down  and  decompose  foodstuffs.  .These  changes 


FIG.   11. —  Bacillus  butyricus  (rods  and  spores  found  in  corn). 

take  place  with  varying  rapidity  in  different  foods  and  injure  the 
quality  of  the  food.  The  delicate  flavors  of  many  fruits  are  thus 
destroyed  when  they  are  allowed  to  stand  too  long,  and  become 
stale  before  being  canned.  This  is  an  important  reason  why  all 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  25 

fruits  and  vegetables  should  be  canned  as  quickly  as  possible  after 
being  gathered.  The  canner  need  not  pay  great  attention  to 
enzymes,  because  they  are  killed  as  soon  as  heated. 

Classes  of  Bacteria. — A  classification  of  bacteria  in  reference 
to  their  need  of  oxygen  is  especially  helpful  to  the  canner ;  from 
this  point  of  view,  bacteria  are  of  three  classes : 

1.  Aerobic — require  free  oxygen. 

2.  Anaerobic — can  live  without  free  oxygen  (Fig.  12). 


FIG.   12. — Anaerobic  pea  bacillus. 

3.  Facultative  (Aerobic,  anaerobic) — can  live  with  or  without 
free  oxygen. 

Aerobic  bacteria  obtain  the  oxygen  necessary  for  the  process 
of  multiplication  from  the  air,  and  if  the  air  is  cut  off  they  either 
remain  dormant  or  die.  Anaerobic  bacteria  obtain  their  supply  of 
oxygen  from  organic  compounds  such  as  carbohydrates  and  pro- 
teins. This  class  sometimes  causes  more  violent  fermentation 
when  forced  to  grow  in  the  absence  of  free  oxygen  than  when 
growing  naturally;  being  deprived  of  free  oxygen,  the  tearing 


26  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

•>». 

down  of  organic  compounds  is  accomplished  with  great  rapidity 
to  supply  the  required  oxygen,  while  the  multiplication  is  les- 
sened. This  fact  accounts  for  the  rapid  spoilage  of  goods  which 
have  been  improperly  sterilized.  The  anaerobic  bacteria  bring 
about  decomposition  with  the  evolution  of  a  large  amount  of  gas 
(Fig.  13).  This  gas  may  accumulate  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
bulge  and  even  to  break  the  container  in  which  it  is  sealed  (Fig. 


Fia.   13. — Bacillus  megatherium  (the  vegetating  forms  as  found  in  a  can  of  peas). 

14).  When  products  in  tin  bulge  from  the  presence  of  gas  inside 
they  are  known  as  "  swells. ' '  Some  bacteria  have  been  described 
which  bring  about  decomposition  in  vegetables  and  meat  without 
evolution  of  gas.  They  give  evidence  of  their  presence  by  the 
development  of  peculiar  odors  and  flavors.  These  are  known  as 
"flat  sours." 

A  large  percentage  of  losses  in  canned  goods  is  due  to  the 
facultative  anaerobes.  The  anaerobic  bacteria,  however,  cause 
spoilage  in  many  cases  where  others  are  destroyed  because  the  an- 
aerobic belong  to  the  soil  and  are  spore-bearing  and  have  the 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING 


power  to  withstand  very  high  temperatures  and  afterwards  de- 
velop. Most  all  of  the  anaerobes  are  known  as  bacilli;  that  is. 
they  are  rod-shaped. 

Facultative  aerobic  or  facultative  anaerobic  bacteria  belong 
to  a  class  which  accommodate  themselves  to  whatever  condition  in 
which  they  may  be  placed  : 

Facultative  aerobes  are  anaerobic  by  nature,  but  will  grow 
in  an  aerobic  state ;  that  is,  in  air. 

Facultative  anaerobes  are  aerobic  by  nature,  but  will  grow  in 
an  anaerobic  state ;  that  is,  where  air  is  excluded. 


a  c 

Fia.  14. — (a)  Can  bursted  from  pressure  of  gas  generated;  (6)  a  normal  can,  (c)  a  swell. 

Nearly  all  bacteria  found  in  improperly  sterilized  sealed  con- 
tainers are  spore-bearing  organisms,  either  anaerobic  or  faculta- 
tive anaerobic.  If  there  should  happen  to  be  a  leak  in  the  can, 
any  variety  may  enter  and  set  up  decomposition.  Non-sporu- 
lating  varieties  are  always  destroyed  at  boiling  temperature  (212° 
Fahrenheit)  ;  so  unless  there  is  a  leak  or  the  sterilizing  is  incom- 
plete, this  variety  will  not  be  present. 

A  partial  vacuum  is  an  ideal  environment  for  the  growth  of 
anaerobic  bacilli,  since  free  oxygen  interferes  with  the  multipli- 
cation of  these  germs.  On  the  other  hand,  they  require  oxygen 
for  growth,  but  they  must  obtain  it  by  breaking  down  substances 
that  contain  oxygen  in  chemical  combinations. 

Partially  cooked  material  offers  a  more  suitable  medium  for 
these  germs,  because  the  cellulose  or  fiber  is  softened  and  there  is 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


usually  more  surface  exposed,  and  the  juices  are  richer  in  carbo- 
hydrate or  albuminous  matter,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  danger 
from  these  bacteria  is  not  so  great  where  absolute  cleanliness  is 
exercised  and  waste  material  is  properly  disposed  of.  Many  bac- 
teria which  are  capable  of  setting  up  putrefactive  processes  will 
thrive  luxuriantly  on  a  great  variety  of  cooked  foods,  when,  as  a 
rule,  they  will  not  grow  readily  on  whole  raw  materials. 

Perfect  Seal  Important. — Putrefaction  is  sometimes  found  in 

imperfectly  sealed  and  sterilized 
canned  meats  and  vegetables. 
This  may  be  due  to  insufficient 
sterilization  or  to  leaky  cans.  In 
the  process  of  putrefaction  there 
are  various  ptomaines  and  toxic 
poisons  formed  which  sometimes 
cause  considerable  trouble. 

Testing  the  Seal.— (a)  In 
glass.  After  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles are  canned  and  set  aside  until 
entirely  cold,  the  jars  may  be 
tested  by  removing  the  clamp  and 
attempting  to  lift  the  lid  from  the 
jar.  If  the  lid  comes  off,  the  jar 
was  either  not  properly  sealed  or 

FIG.   16.~Te.ting  the  jar  seal.  ^    CQntents   are    fermenting   and 

may  have  to  be  discarded.  If  the  lid  remains  tight,  the  chances  are 
that  the  contents  are  keeping  (Fig.  15).  When  faulty  sealing 
alone  exists  jars  may  be  reprocessed  and  the  contents  saved. 
However,  protein  foods  are  sometimes  attacked  by  bacteria 
which  thrive  without  the  presence  of  air,  and  which  decom- 
pose canned  foods  without  producing  any  gas.  When  these 
have  not  been  killed  by  processing,  the  food  may  appear  good 
and  the  jar  remain  sealed  when  it  is  spoiled.  These  spoils 
in  tin  caused  by  bacteria  which  decompose  food  without  form- 
ing gas  are  known  as  "flat  sours";  with  them  the  can  is  not 
bulged  and  shows  no  indication  of  spoiling.  When  such  products 
are  opened  they  are  slimy  and  soft  and  they  are  acid  to  the  taste. 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  29 

( b)  In  tin.  The  time  to  detect  the  leak  is  when  the  can  is  first 
put  into  the  sterilizer;  a  shower  of  bubbles  will  be  seen  coming 
from  the  defective  seal.  If  the  can  is  removed  immediately  and 
retipped  or  capped,  the  contents  may  be  saved  in  good  condition. 
Occasionally  the  attempt  is  made  to  save  defective  cans,  when 
they  are  detected  after  the  processing,  by  reopening  the  tip  hole, 
repairing  the  can,  exhausting  and  reprocessing  for  the  regular 
time.  Products  handled  by  this  careless  method  are  very  likely 
to  cause  most  serious  stomach  and  intestinal  complications.  This 
practice  is  a  very  dangerous  one. 

After  cans  are  cooled,  before  stacking  them,  they  are  some- 
times tested  by  tapping  the  end  of  the  can  with  a  piece  of  metal. 
A  clear,  ringing1  sound  indicates  that  the  can  is  air-tight.  If  a 
dull  sound  is  heard  when  the  metal  strikes  the  lid,  the  can  should 
not  be  stored  with  the  lot.  A  trained  or  experienced  ear  can  very 
quickly  detect  from  the  sound  when  all  is  not  well  within. 

Substances  Injurious  to  Bacterial  Growth. — Many  bacteria 
in  growing  give  rise  to  substances  such  as  acids  which  are  more 
or  less  injurious  to  the  cell  life.  The  accumulation  of  acids  and 
other  substances  produced  by  bacteria  interferes  with  the  bacterial 
growth  and  their  power  of  multiplication.  We  have  examples  of 
this  in  the  "flat  sours"  and  also  in  the  brining  of  vegetables. 
The  acid  present  when  frothing  ceases  above  the  brined  cucum- 
bers (lactic  acid)  is  strong  enough  to  kill  most  of  the  bacteria 
in  the  brine.  It  is  this  lactic  acid  which  cures  and  keeps  the  vege- 
table if  the  air  is  excluded  from  it  at  this  stage,  and  the  forming 
of  scum  yeast  at  the  surface  of  the  brine  is  prevented.  Many 
manufacturers  do  not  know  that  their  brine  contains  acid,  yet  the 
instant  it  does  not  contain  it  the  pickle  begins  to  deteriorate.  A 
full  explanation  of  this  process  is  given  in  the  chapter  on  l '  Pick- 
ling, ' '  page  190.  One  of  the  principal  factors  in  the  manufacture 
and  preservation  of  sauer-kraut  is  the  development  of  lactic  acid 
in  quantities  sufficient  to  act  as  a  preservative.  Bacteria,  yeast, 
and  molds  are  of  value  in  preparation  of  foods  such  as  vinegar, 
pickles,  sauer-kraut,  cheese,  bread,  and  butter. 

Methods  of  Preserving  Foods. — Just  at  this  point  it  may  be 
helpful  and  interesting  to  consider  methods  of  preserving  food, 


30  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

with  a  brief  explanation  of  how  each  method  accomplishes  its  pur- 
pose. To  understand  these  fundamental  reasons  enables  one  to  do 
canning  and  preserving  more  skilfully.  The  four  methods  com- 
monly used  are  preservation  of  food  by  drying,  by  preservatives, 
by  heat,  and  by  cold. 

1.  Preservation  of  Food  ~by  Drying. — This  method  perhaps  was 
one  of  the  first  known.     In  primitive  times  food  was  exposed  to 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  the  purpose  of  drying  it.     This 
method  is  practiced  at  the  present  time,  but  more  frequently  the 
product  is  subjected  to  a  higher  temperature.    In  the  process  of 
drying  a  considerable  portion  of  water  is  eliminated  and  many  of 
the  organisms  present  are  destroyed.    Bacteria,  yeast,  and  molds 
cannot  develop  when  the  moisture  in  any  food  is  very  much 
reduced  below  the  original  amount.    The  same  is  true  when  cer- 
tain disinfectants,  such  as  smoke  or  the  fumes  of  sulfur  dioxide, 
are  used  in  the  cure.    Meats  and  fish  are  frequently  dried  after 
a  preliminary  smoking  or  salting.    Many  food  materials  contain- 
ing an  abundance  of  starch  are  sufficiently  dried  in  the  natural 
process  of  ripening  and  drying ;   for  example,  certain  nuts,  such 
as  chestnuts  and  the  grains.    Meats,  meal,  or  flour  containing  the 
same  amount  of  moisture  as  raisins  or  prunes  would  quickly  spoil. 
Fruits  are  usually  readily  preserved  by  drying  on  account  of 
their  high  sugar  content.    A  dried  or  partially  dried  food  should 
be  sealed  from  the  air  to  prevent  gross  contamination  and  to  pre- 
vent moisture  being  absorbed  due  to  its  hygroscopic  nature. 

2.  By  Harmless  Preservatives. — The  most  commonly  used  of 
these  preservatives  are  salt,  sugar,  vinegar,  and  certain  spices. 
In  the  presence  of  these,  bacteria  and  yeast  cannot  grow  success- 
fully.   Products  such  as  jellies,  preserves,  and  pickles  are  easily 
kept  because  of  the  presence  of  one  or  more  of  these  preservatives. 
While  the  sugar  or  spices  used  may  prevent  fermentation,  molds 
are  likely  to  occur  on  these  foods  unless  sterilized  and  sealed  to 
protect  them  from  the  air.    This  can  be  done  with  all  of  the  prod- 
ucts, except  jellies,  by  always  processing  and  sealing  after  packing 
them  into  the  containers.     Jelly  can  be  protected  from  mold 
by  pouring  over  it  a  thin  layer  of  melted  paraffin  when  cold  and 
covering  it  tightly. 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  31 

Sodium  chloride  (salt)  is  used  for  dry-salting  fish  and  some- 
times other  meats.  The  salt  rapidly  removes  a  part  of  the  water 
and  thus  forms  a  medium  which  is  not  suitable  for  the  growth  of 
bacteria.  This  is  a  physical  action,  because  it  is  brought  about  by 
greatly  increasing  the  osmotic  pressure.  Some  preservatives  act 
chemically  by  direct  antiseptic  action  upon  the  microorganisms. 
Preservatives  that  inhibit  the  growth  of  organisms  by  their  chem- 
ical action  as  antiseptics  belong  in  two  classes:  (a)  those  which 
are  produced  in  the  food  as  a  result  of  fermentation  of  the  food 
material  being  packed ;  (&)  those  which  are  added  directly  to  the 
food. 

(a)  Self -fermentation  as  Preservation. — Among  the  products 
in  which  preservation  is  achieved  through  the  results  of  fermen- 
tation, in  the  process  of  curing,  are  pickles,  olives,  onions,  sauer- 
kraut, cauliflower,  and  some  pickled  meats  and  various  other  raw 
materials.    Lactic  acid  formed  by  the  action  of  lactic  acid  bacteria 
upon  sugar  may  develop  in  sufficient  quantities  in  certain  foods  to 
preserve  them  indefinitely  against  further  change  if  properly 
handled.    The  preservation  of  ensilage  is  largely  due  to  the  lactic 
acid  and  other  acids  which  are  formed  during  the  process  of 
curing. 

(b)  Preserving  powders  and  other  chemicals  added  to  foods 
for  their  preservation  are  considered  detrimental  to  health.    Not 
only  are  foods  containing  them  in  quantity  less  wholesome,  but 
their  use  encourages  carelessness  and  the  putting  up  of  food  which 
is  unsound  and  unfit  to  eat.    Benzoic  acid  and  salicylic  acid  and 
their  salts,  and  formaldehyde,  boric  acid,  and  borates  are  some- 
times used.    These  compounds  were  purposely  added  by  some  of 
the  early  canners  to  shorten  their  sterilization  period.    Fortun- 
ately this  method  has  largely  been  superseded  by  the  more  reliable 
and  less  expensive  sterilization  by  heat  only. 

Some  products,  such  as  ketchups,  sauces,  and  "  fruit  sundaes, ' ' 
preserved  with  such  chemicals  as  salicylic  acid,  benzoate  of 
sodium,  and  borax,  are  still  on  the  market.  In  many  cases  this 
method  is  used  because  the  buyer  prefers  this  class  of  goods,  even 
when  he  knows  that  preservatives  have  been  used  to  keep  them 
in  an  unfermented  state.  Hotel  and  soda  fountain  trade  some- 


32  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

times  prefers  goods  treated  in  this  way  because  they  will  not  spoil 
so  soon  after  being  opened.  Sometimes  tomato  ketchup  and  fruits 
for  sundaes  will  not  keep  for  more  than  a  week  after  the  bottles 
or  jars  are  opened.  Frequently  fermentation  sets  in  about  the 
fourth  or  fifth  day,  and  mold  will  sometimes  be  visible  to  the  eye 
1  in  five  or  six  days,  if  they  have  been  sterilized  by  heat  only.  So 
long  as  the  buyers '  trade  will  accept  food  which  is  bought  in  large 
containers  and  has  been  allowed  to  stand  around  open  for  days  at 
fountains  and  in  hotels  we  may  expect  these  preservatives  to  be 
used.  This  method  is  cheaper  and  requires  less  care  and  skill  than 
the  putting  up  of  individual  packages  for  each  patron's  service. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  it  is  advisable 
to  preserve  food  materials  whenever  possible  without  the  addition 
of  antiseptics.  They  are  unnecessary,  and,  though  the  actual 
effect  on  the  body  of  some  is  unknown,  the  burden  of  proof  rests 
upon  those  who  employ  them. 

3.  By  Means  of  Heat. — Two  methods  of  heat  application  may 
be  used — pasteurization  or  sterilization.  In  pasteurization  the 
food  is  raised  to  such  a  temperature  that  the  organisms  of  certain 
types,  but  not  necessarily  all  organisms,  are  destroyed.  This 
process  is  ordinarily  applied  to  milk  and  cream  and  to  certain 
alcoholic  beverages,  such  as  beer  and  wine.  In  some  cases  this 
results  in  a  prolongation  of  the  time  during  which  the  food  may 
be  used. 

Sterilization  by  heat  implies  the  use  of  a  sufficient  degree  of 
heat  to  destroy  all  organisms  present ;  and  when  the  entrance  of 
other  organisms  into  the  sterilized  food  is  prevented  it  may  be 
preserved  indefinitely.  In  the  preservation  of  foods  by  heat  it  is 
necessary  that  a  temperature  be  selected  such  that  will  destroy  all 
organisms  capable  of  producing  undesirable  changes  and  yet 
cause  no  undesirable  changes  to  take  place  in  the  food  itself. 
The  antiseptic  action  of  the  acid  found  in  some  fruits  and  vege- 
tables is  so  increased  by  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  that  it 
quite  certainly  sterilizes  the  product.  Foods  containing  a  large 
proportion  of  sugars  are  also  easily  sterilized  by  boiling.  Vege- 
tables such  as  corn  and  peas  are  much  more  difficult  to  preserve, 
inasmuch  as  they  contain  neither  acid  nor  sugar  in  considerable 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  33 

quantities  and  are  ordinarily  infected  with  certain  of  the  anae- 
robic spore-bearing  bacteria  which  are  capable  of  withstanding 
high  temperatures. 

The  heat  used  in  the  preservation  of  food  by  sterilization  pro- 
duces few  changes  other  than  those  which  would  be  accomplished 
by  ordinary  cooking.  Heat  will  not  injure  the  flavor  very  much 
unless  it  is  prolonged. 

Since  sterilization  or  preservation  by  means  of  heat  is  the  best 
way  to  retain  the  natural  flavors  and  wholesome  qualities  of  fruits 
and  vegetables,  this  book  will  deal  chiefly  with  this  means  of  keep- 
ing these  foods. 

4.  Preservation  of  Food  in  Cold  Storage.  —  Practically  all 
foods  can  be  kept  for  a  time  by  the  use  of  low  temperatures.  Cold 
does  not  kill,  but  arrests  the  growth  of  organism.  Some  foods  can 
be  kept  indefinitely  by  freezing.  Meats  may  be  held  for  some 
time  at  this  temperature  without  deterioration ;  in  fact,  for  a  time 
with  marked  improvement  in  tenderness  and  flavor.  Some  bac- 
teria may  develop  at  temperatures  below  freezing-point  of  water, 
but  not  if  they  are  in  a  medium  which  is  solidly  frozen.  The 
length  of  time  that  food  products  may  be  kept  in  cold  storage 
without  danger  to  the  health  of  the  consumer  is  a  disputed  ques- 
tion, but  it  undoubtedly  varies  widely  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  food. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  is  the  decomposition   of  foods  due?     Mention   some  changes 

which  take  place  during  the  decomposition  of  foods. 

2.  In  what  fundamental   way  do  molds,  yeast,  and   bacteria  differ   from 

the  plants  with  which  we  are  most  familiar? 

3.  What  is  the  distinction  between  parasites  and  saprophytes? 

4.  Describe  briefly  the  characteristics  of  molds,  including  their  necessities 

for  growth  and  their  manner  of  growing  and  reproducing. 

5.  Why  do  molds  readily  attack  fruits  ? 

6.  How  may  mold  be  prevented  from  growing  on  the  top  of  jelly?     Explain 

your  answer. 

7.  What   is  yeast?     Describe  briefly  the  manner  of  its   growth  and   the 

necessities  for  it. 

8.  What  are  bacteria?     State  one  way  in  which  they  differ  definitely  from 

molds  and  yeast. 
3 


34  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

9.  Why  is  it  more  difficult  to  can  beans  and  meat  than  it  is  to  can  fruits 
and  tomatoes? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  spore-bearing  bacteria?     How  do  spores  differ  from 

bacteria  in  their  tenacity  of  life? 

11.  Why  are  spore-bearing  bacteria  almost  invariably  present  upon  fruits 

and  vegetables? 

12.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  sound  fruits  and  vegetables  for  canning? 

13.  What  tale  does  a  bruise  on  fruit  or  vegetable  tell  to  one  versed  in  the 

elementary  facts  of  bacteriology? 

14.  Why  is  intermittent  processing  at  212°  Fahrenheit  a  surer  method  of 

sterilization  than  a  single  processing  for  a  longer  time  in  a  water- 
bath  ? 

15.  What  advantage  has  the  product  of   fractional  sterilization  over  that 

produced  by  a  steam  retort? 

16.  Why  is  it  well  to  can  fruit  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  has  been  picked? 

17.  How  can  you  explain  the  rapid  spoiling  of  food  which  has  been  imper- 

fectly sterilized? 

18.  Describe  "  swells."    What  is  the  cause  of  them?     Describe  "  flat  sours." 

What  is  their  cause? 

19.  Why  is  a  large  percentage  of  spoilage  in  canned  goods  due  to  anaerobic 

bacilli?  By  what  care  can  we  reduce  the  danger  of  that  to  a 
minimum  ? 

20.  Why  is  a  leaky  can  or  imperfectly  sterilized  product  extremely  dan- 

gerous?   What  substances  are  formed  in  the  process  of  putrefaction? 

21.  Under  what  conditions  are  bacteria,  yeast,  and   molds   of  use  in   the 

preparation  of  food? 

22.  What  four  methods  are  commonly  used  in  the  preservation  of  foods? 

23.  Upon  what  principle  is  the  preservation  by  drying  based?     Why  are 

fruits  more  easily  preserved  by  drying  than  are  meats,  fish,  etc.? 

24.  Name  the  substances  which  may  be  classed  as  harmless  preservatives. 

From  the  attacks  of  what  forms  of  microorganisms  do  these  protect 
foods?  Explain  the  preserving  power  of  two  of  these  harmless 
preservatives. 

25.  Why    should   preserving   powders   be   condemned   even   when    their    in- 

jurious effects  cannot  be  proved? 

26.  What  responsibility  has  the  public   in  the  continuance  of  the  use  of 

such  powders? 

27.  What  is  the  aim  in  the  preservation  of  foods  by  heat? 

28.  What  is  meant  by  pasteurization  ?     By  sterilization  ? 

29.  Why  are  foods  much  more  easily  sterilized  by  boiling  when   there  is 

present  a  certain  amount  of  sugar  and  acid? 

30.  Why  is  much  care  and  skill  necessary  in  the  preserving  of  corn,  peas, 

etc.,  by  heat  alone? 

31.  Why  can  foods  be  kept  for  a  certain  length  of  time  in  cold  storage? 


BACTERIOLOGY  OF  CANNING  35 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  BITTING,  A.  W.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 

Chemistry,  "The  Canning  of  Foods,"  Bulletin  No.  151,  1912.  Super- 
intendent of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
D.  C.  10  cents. 

2.  BITTING,  A.  W.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 

Chemistry,  "  Methods  Followed  in  the  Commercial  Canning  of  Foods," 
Bulletin  No.  196,  May,  1915.  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  10  cents. 

3.  BUCHANAN,  ESTELLE  D.,  and  ROBERT  EARLE,  "  Household  Bacteriology," 

1913.     The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $2.25. 

4.  CONN,  H.  W.,  "  Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home,"  1912.     Ginn 

&  Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $1. 

5.  DUCKWALL,  EDWAUD  WILEY,  "Canning  and  Preserving  of  Food  Products 

with  Bacteriological  Technique,"  1905.  The  Pittsburgh  Printing 
Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  $5. 

(>.  ELLIOTT,  S.  MARIA,  "  Household  Bacteriology,"  1910.     American  School 
of  Home  Economics,  Chicago,  111.     $1.50. 

7.  JORDAN,  EDWIN  O.,  "  Bacteriology,"   1912.     W.  B.  Saunders  Company, 

Philadelphia,  Pa.    $3. 

8.  LOIINIS,  F.,  and  SMITH,  N.  R.,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 

ture,  Journal  of  Agricultural  Research,  "  Life  Cycles  of  the  Bac- 
teria," vol.  6,  No.  18,  1916.  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  25  cents. 

*  9.  MCELROY,  K.  P.,  and  BIGELOW,  W.  D.,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  "  Canned  Vegetables,"  Bulletin 
No.  13,  part  8,  1893. 

10.  VAN  RENSSELAER,  MARTHA,  Cornell  Reading  Courses,  "  Household  Bac- 

teriology," January,  1913.  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

11.  WILEY,  DR.   HARVEY  W.,  "Foods  and  Their  Adulteration,"   1911.     P. 

Blakiston's  Son  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.     $4. 

12.  "  Bacteriology  of  the  Household,"  in  Lippincott's  Home  Manual  Series 

(in  preparation).     J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphia. 


CHAPTER  III 
PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 

THE  same  general  conditions  hold  for  canning  indoors  or  out 
of  doors.  Convenient  equipment,  carefully  selected  and  ar- 
ranged, surroundings  clean  and  free  from  dust,  and  a  plentiful 
supply  of  water  are  among  the  Essentials. 

INDOOR  CANNING 

During  certain  seasons  of  the  year  weather  conditions  make 
it  more  comfortable  to  work  indoors.  Small  quantities  of  fruit 
or  vegetables  can  be  more  conveniently  handled  in  the  kitchen 
than  out  of  doors. 

Arrangement  of  Equipment. — When  canning  in  the  kitchen, 
a  part  of  the  work,  such  as  sorting,  washing,  cutting,  and  peel- 
ing, may  be  done  on  the  porch.  Jars  may  be  sterilized  and  brine 
and  syrup  made  in  the  kitchen  while  the  fruit  is  being  prepared 
on  the  porch.  After  cooking,  which  with  vegetables  may  in- 
clude blanching  and  with  fruits  may  involve  plumping,  the  cool- 
ing and  packing  may  be  done  on  the  porch,  provided  it  is 
screened  against  bees,  wasps,  flies,  and  other  insects  wThich  are 
attracted  by  the  odors  of  the  products  being  canned.  The  at- 
tractive odors  of  the  fragrant  fruits  and  spices  are  alluring  to 
these  insects  (Fig.  16). 

Utensils  Used  in  Preparation. — Only  the  equipment  neces- 
sary for  convenient,  accurate,  and  efficient  work  should  be  se- 
lected. First,  it  is  well  to  consider  the  utensils  necessary  for  the 
washing,  peeling,  coring,  and  slicing  in  the  preparation  of  the 
fruit  and  vegetables.  For  washing,  it  is  best  to  use  small  brushes 
having  strong  bristles,  bowls  for  the  water,  and  pans  for  drain- 
ing. Some  good  types  of  knives  for  paring  and  peeling,  selected 
with  reference  to  comfortable  handling  and  well-shaped  cutting 
edge,  are  shown  in  the  illustration.  Since  coring  and  slicing  of 
fruit  are  constantly  being  carried  on  in  cooking  operations  the 
year  around,  it  is  worth  while  to  provide  these  inexpensive  uten- 
36 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


37 


sils,  which  will  also  add  to  the  efficiency  of  these  operations  in 
canning.     Good  types  are  shown  in  figure  17. 


Fia.   16. — A  group  of  useful  utensils  for  washing,  peeling,  coring,  grating,  and  slicing  fruit 

and  vegetables. 


FIG.   17. — Special  equipment  necessary  to  obtain  most  successful  and  accurate  results. 

Successful  results  largely  depend  upon  the  accuracy  with 
which  directions  are  followed.  With  this  idea  in  view,  a  small 
special  equipment  is  suggested.  For  measuring  liquids,  the  one- 


38  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

half  pint  glass  cup  and  enamel  or  aluminum  quart  measure  will 
be  sufficient.  Tin  utensils  are  objectionable  because  fruits  are 
discolored  by  them.  In  securing  level  measures  of  dry  material 
the  use  of  a  spatula  is  suggested.  It  has  many  other  valuable 
uses.  A  flat  cane  paddle  used  in  packing  may  be  substituted  for 
the  spatula.  Scales  are  invaluable  when  undertaking  canning  in 
large  quantities.  The  clock  must  be  constantly  consulted  to  in- 
sure correct  time  for  the  various  steps  in  the  processes  of  canning 
and  preserving.  The  saccharometer  is  suggested  for  the  purpose 
of  measuring  the  density  of  syrups  used  in  canning  fruits ;  ther- 


FIG.   18. — Utensils  used  in  blanching  and  in  cooking. 

mometers  aid  in  the  jelly-making  process,  as  well  as  in  making 
jams  and  marmalades.  A  fuller  description  of  their  use  is  given 
in  the  chapter  on  ' '  Preserving. ' '  A  salt  percentage  scale  is  used 
to  determine  the  density  of  brine  for  use  in  pickling  (Fig.  17). 

Utensils  Used  in  Cooking  and  Processing. — The  equipment 
thus  far  described  is  useful  in  preparation  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables for  canning.  Next  to  be  considered  are  utensils  for  cook- 
ing and  processing.  In  the  blanching  necessary  for  some  fruits 
and  vegetables  a  large  vessel  for  boiling  water  is  necessary.  This 
must  be  large  enough  to  immerse  wire  baskets  containing  the 
fruit  to  be  blanched.  The  same  pan  or  tray  used  later  in  the  pre- 
serving serves  here  for  transferring  the  dripping  baskets  or 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


39 


blanching  cloth  to  the  cold  bath  which  follows  the  blanch  in  many 
cases.  The  large  preserving  kettle  illustrated  is  useful  in  many 
ways.  It  might  be  used  for  the  blanching  vessel,  the  preserving 
kettle,  and  even  as  the  processor.  It  is  economy  to  have  it  of  the 
most  durable  material  possible.  Two  ladles — one  cup-like  with 
pouring  lip  for  liquids,  and  the  other  flat  and  perforated  for 
skimming— will  be  helpful  during  the  cooking  as  well  as  when 
filling  the  containers  (Fig.  18). 


FIG.   19. — The  processor  and  rack  with  jars  ready  to  be  sterilized.     Note  all  clamps  are 
raised  and  screw-top  only  partly  screwed  on. 

In  processing,  which  is  described  later,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  tightly  covered  vessel  large  enough  to  sterilize  a  convenient 
number  of  jars  at  one  time.  A  rack  which  will  raise  the  con- 
tainers from  the  bottom  of  the  sterilizer  must  be  used  to  allow 
boiling  water  to  circulate  beneath  as  well  as  around  the  con- 
tainers being  sterilized.  This  rack  is  most  convenient  when  it  is 
supplied  with  handles  so  that  all  the  jars  on  it  may  be  lifted  at 
one  time  (Fig.  19).  Wire  hot- jar  lifters  will  prevent  burning 
fingers  (Fig.  20). 

Cooperative  canning  also  is  a  method  of  minimizing  labor 
(Figs.  21  and  22). 


40  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

OUTDOOR    CANNING 

There  are  many  advantages  and  pleasures  in  canning  out  of 
doors,  especially  when  large  quantities  of  farm  products  are  to 
be  taken  care  of  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  Outdoor  canning 
gives  opportunity  for  cooperative  work  among  clubs  and  neigh- 
bors. In  cooperative  canning  the  minimum  amount  of  labor,  if 
well  organized,  will  give  larger  and  better  results.  This  work 
has  stimulated  many  women  and  girls  to  spend  more  time  in  the 
open  and  bring  other  tasks  out  of  doors.  Choose  a  shady,  green, 
cool  spot  convenient  to  the  water  supply  for  the  canning.  The 
fact  has  been  mentioned  before  that  insects  are  attracted  by 
odors  from  the  fruit  being  canned,  and  it  might  be  well  to 
consider  baiting  fly-traps  near  where  the  canning  is  done  (Fig. 


FIG.   20. — Tongs  for  handling  hot  cans. 

23).  Flies  prefer  nitrogenous  food  to  sweets,  and  if  the 
traps  are  properly  baited  with  milk  clabber  or  meat  they  will 
be  less  attracted  to  the  products  being  canned  (Figs.  23  and  24). 
In  addition  to  the  equipment  already  described  above  under  *  'In- 
door Canning,''  there  are  important  matters  of  special  concern 
in  outdoor  canning. 

Arrangement  of  Tables. — Tables  of  the  proper  height  should 
be  conveniently  arranged  for  different  steps  of  the  work.  The 
diagram  shown  offers  a  suggestion  for  placing  of  tables  with 
reference  to  the  canner,  especially  when  canning  in  tin  (Fig.  25) . 

Table  1  is  equipped  for  the  sorting,  washing,  blanching,  peel- 
ing, and  coring.  It  should  be  as  few  steps  as  possible  from  the 
canner,  to  save  time  and  labor  in  the  blanching  process. 

Table  2  should  be  placed  near  Table  1,  because  the  fruit  is 
passed  to  this  table  for  packing,  weighing,  and  adding  of  brine 
or  syrup. 

Table  3,  which  is  for  capping  and  tipping  and  should  stand 
evel,  should  be  near  the  canner,  because  of  the  numerous  trips 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


41 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


to  be  made  between  them.  Table  3  might  be  omitted  if  one  is 
canning  in  glass  only.  Illustrations  show  other  convenient  ar- 
rangements of  tables  for  out-of-door  canning  (Figs.  26  and  27). 
When  tin  cans  are  used  it  necessitates  the  use  of  tipping  cop- 
per and  capping  steel.  Sometimes  the  same  fire  which  heats  the 
water  in  the  canner  is  used  to  heat  these  tools.  A  little  oil  stove 
which  burns  a  gas  flame  is  certainly  worth  having  for  heating  the 
tools.  It  gives  a  hotter  and  cleaner  fire  than  the  wood  fire  in 
the  canner ;  it  heats  the  steel  more  quickly  and  saves  cleaning  and 
retinning  the  tools  so  often 
(Figs.  28  and  29). 

A  portable  canner  is  a 
necessary  convenience  for  out- 
of-door  canning.  This  may 
either  be  homemade  or  pur- 
chased. There  are  a  number 
of  portable  canners  at  reason- 
able prices  on  the  market  at 
present.  Considering  the  fact 
that  most  concerns  furnish 
tipping  copper,  capping  steel, 
and  blanching  trays  with  the 
outfit,  it  is  cheaper  to  buy 
one  complete  than  to  attempt 
to  build  one  and  purchase  a 

Set     Of     tools.         The     essential  FlG-  23-~ A  homemade  fly-trap. 

feature  of  such  a  canner  is  a  good,  large  fire-box,  above  which 
is  a  compartment  for  heating  water.  In  the  water  compart- 
ment are  placed  two  or  three  wire  baskets  for  handling  a  quantity 
of  fruit  at  one  time  in  blanching  or  a  number  of  jars  or  cans  in 
processing.  A  wooden  rack  placed  below  these  baskets  raises  them 
above  the  fire-box  and  allows  circulation  of  the  water  around  jars 
and  prevents  breaking  during  the  processing.  For  this  tank 
there  must  be  a  close-fitting  cover  (Fig.  30). 

A  large  tub  of  cold  water  for  cooling  tins  should  be  placed 
beside  the  canner.  When  canning  in  glass  out  of  doors,  a  cloth 
should  be  provided  to  place  over  the  jars  immediately  after  re- 


44 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


moving  them  from  processing,  to  prevent  the  cold  breeze  from 
striking  the  glass  and  breaking  it. 


SELECTING   CONTAINERS 


Types  of  Containers. — The  type  of  container  is  very  impor- 
tant and  should  be  considered  when  the  first  equipment  for  can- 


FIQ.  24. — Mississippi  club  girls  building  a  fly-trap  for  out-of-door  canning. 

ning  is  secured.  The  most  essential  feature  to  consider  is  a 
perfect  closure;  then  the  size  and  shape  desired  for  different 
products. 

Tin  Cans. — When  canning  is  to  be  done  in  tin  and  the  buying 
is  to  be  direct  from  the  manufacturer,  it  is  very  necessary  to  order 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


45 


the  cans  as  early  as  possible  to  take  advantage  of  the  lower  prices 
offered  before  July  1.  Many  firms  close  their  factories  after 
this  date,  and  will  not  consider  any  order  in  less  than  carload 
lots.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  some  of  the  glass  factories.  If 
you  anticipate  canning  in  large  quantities,  make  an  estimate  for 
your  dealer  or  order  early  from  the  manufacturer.  Tin  cans 
are  designated  by  number  rather  than  by  the  measure  of  liquid 
they  carry,  as  is  the  case  in  glass  containers  (Fig.  31).  Flat 


FIG.  25. — A  convenient  arrangement  for  out-of-door  canning. 

No.  1  cans  are  the  smallest  that  are  advisable  for  use  in  home 
canning,  and  their  use  is  very  limited.  The  No.  1  flat  or  squat 
can  is  more  attractive  than  the  tall  No.  1  for  the  most  of  the  prod- 
ucts packed  in  so  small  a  tin,  and  is  especially  desirable  for  such 
packs  as  sweet  Spanish  pimientos,  figs,  tomato  paste,  etc.  The 
No.  2  tin  can  is  the  size  most  generally  used  for  canned  vege- 
tables and  small  fruits.  Corn  and  peas  are  more  easily  sterilized 
in  this  sized  tin,  and  for  that  reason  these  products  should  not 
be  packed  in  any  larger  container.  No.  3  can  is  used  more  often 
in  some  localities  than  No.  2,  especially  for  canning  peaches, 
tomatoes,  pears,  etc.  (Fig.  32). 


46 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


FIG.   27. — Canning  tomatoes  from  the  scholarship  plot,  State  Normal  School,  Harrisonburg,  Va. 


FIG.  28. — A  kerosene  stove  which  burns  a  gas  flame  for  heating  soldering  tools. 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


The  enamel-lined  can  is  necessary  when  canning  berries,  plums, 
cherries,  beets,  pumpkin,  and  hominy,  which  may  not  be  packed 
in  the  ordinary  tin  cans,  because  they  are  affected  by  the  tin  in 
such  a  way  as  to  rapidly  lose  their  color  and  flavor.  Figs  also 
will  keep  a  brighter  color  when  packed  in  these  enamel-lined 

cans.  When  enamel-lined  cans 
cannot  be  secured,  these  prod- 
ucts should  be  packed  in  glass. 
A  No.  10  can  is  sometimes 
used  for  tomatoes  and  spinach, 
but  in  such  a  large  container 
a  great  deal  longer  time  is  re- 
quired to  sterilize  food ;  there- 
fore it  is  better  suited  for  hotel 
and  institution  canning.  It  is 
not  generally  advisable  to  pack 
in  No.  10  cans  unless  process- 
ing is  done  under  steam  pres- 
sure. Sometimes  fruits  are 
packed  in  these  containers  in 
a  thin  syrup  during  the  very 
busy  season,  then  opened, 
cooked  more,  and  repacked  in 
marketable  containers  during 
the  less  busy  season,  as  the 
orders  come  in.  This  is  not 
practicable,  however,  unless  a 

FIG.    29. — A    fire-pot  burning     corn-cobs  vprv  laro-p  nnflntitv  nf  ri-npnino- 
for  heating  tools.    A  gasoline  fire-pot  or  char-  VGry  iai&e  qiian 
coal  bucket  may  also  be  used.  f rujt  must  be  taken  care  Qf  jn  ft 

very  short  while,  and  time  cannot  be  allowed  for  plumping  and 
careful  packing.  Often  semi-tropical  fruits  are  handled  in  this 
manner  in  the  orchards  and  shipped  to  the  large  packing-houses, 
where  they  are  repacked  in  smaller  commercial  containers  be- 
fore marketing. 

The  square  tin  cans  are  sometimes  used  for  asparagus  tips. 
In  California  such  a  container  is  more  generally  used  for  this 
product  than  the  round  can. 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT  49 

The  cans  described  above  are  those  which  can  be  secured  with 
solder  hemmed  caps. 

"Sanitary"  Cans. — The  so-called  "sanitary"  cans  are  widely 


FIG.  30. — A  folding  portable  canner. 


FIG.  31. — Standard  sizes  of  tin  containers. 


used  by  commercial  packers.  They  require  a  machine  for  seal- 
ing. A  small  hand  machine  for  sealing  special  sanitary  cans 
is  illustrated  here  (Fig.  33).  The  cans  with  the  proper  closure 


50 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


to  use  in  this  machine  are  a  little  more  expensive,  perhaps,  than 
the  regular  cans  in  stock,  but  the  time  and  material  saved  by 
this  process  more  than  cover  the  extra  charge.  This  method 


C\ 


10 

6  ty  e" 

Capacity 
UG.loz. 

3 

4-  '/*  " 
Capacity    36.  4  oz. 

2                                        3yl6 

Capacity                    % 
ZZ.Zo*. 

* 

N 

Capacity*                J 
12.  oz.                      °*5 

FIG.  32. — Size  of  cans  used  for  household  purposes. 


eliminates  the  use  of  solder  and  canning  flux  in  the  sealing  of 
cans.  If  machinery  cannot  be  employed  hand  tools  will  be 
necessary  (Fig.  34).  It  is  necessary  to  designate  the  size  when 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


51 


ordering  cans,  since  the  diameter  of  the  opening  should  cor- 
respond with  that  of  the  capping  steel  to  be  used.  There  are 
two  sized  openings,  2Vi6-inch  and  27/16-inch.  Cans  with  the 


FIG.  33. — Hand  machine  for  sealing  special  sanitary  cans.     (Courtesy  of  Bowers  Can  Seal 
Company,  Boston,  Mass.) 

21/16-inch  opening  are  more  generally  used.  The  solder  hemmed 
caps  are  preferable,  because  they  save  solder  and  time  in  put- 
ting them  on.  Plain  tin  caps  are  not  worth  considering. 


52 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Glass  containers  are  more  varied  in  sizes  and  shapes  than  the 
tin  and  lend  more  opportunity  for  displaying  a  variety  of  at- 
tractively packed  products,  both  for  the  home  pantry  and  for 
market.  Throughout  this  book  suggestions  are  made  from  time 
to  time  about  salable  products  in  commercial  packages.  This 
is  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  canning,  preserving,  and 


FIG.  34. — Capping  steel  and  tipping  copper. 

selling  of  surplus  products.  The  highest  quality  of  commercial 
products  on  the  market  should  tend  to  stimulate  ideals  and 
standards  (Fig.  35).  These  jars  can  be  obtained  in  one-half 
pint,  pint,  quart,  and  one-half  gallon  sizes. 

Selection  of  Jars. — Jars  should  be  selected  with  reference  to 
suitable  size  and  shape  for  the  product  to  be  packed,  keeping  in 
mind  economy  in  the  initial  purchase  and  durability.  Other 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT  53 

important  consideratious  are  beauty  of  proportion,  tint  and 
quality  of  glass.  Not  only  are  these  qualities  considered  by 
those  who  are  packing  for  high-class  sales,  but  also  by  the  house- 
wife who  enjoys  artistic  expression  through  arrangement  and 
preservation  of  beautiful  form  and  color  in  skilful  packing.  The 
square  jar  is  effective  for  showing  quality  and  pack. 

Lightning  Seal. — The  wide-mouth  glass-top  jar  with  wire  clamp 
which  is  attached  to  the  neck  of  the  jar  is  a  satisfactory  one.  A 
jar  with  this  closure  is  known  as  one  with  a  "lightning  seal." 
This  seal  is  made  by  different  manufacturers  and  put  on  the 
market  under  various  trade  names.  A  jar  with  this  closure  is 


FIG.   35. — A  group  of  jars  for  household  use. 

an  easy  one  to  handle  while  the  jar  is  still  hot.  Immediately 
after  processing  and  sterilizing  it  is  necessary  only  to  push  down 
the  lower  clamp  around  the  neck  of  the  jar.  This  gives  the 
amount  of  pressure  necessary  to  assist  in  the  sealing  of  the  jar 
as  it  cools.  The  rubber  used  is  placed  in  the  groove  of  the  neck 
of  the  jar,  and  the  cap  fits  down  on  the  top  of  the  rubber, 
which  prevents  the  bottom  of  the  glass  top  from  coming  in  direct 
contact  with  the  top  of  the  jar.  It  is  the  rubber  that  makes 
possible  this  seal  by  adhering  to  both  the  top  and  the  jar.  Every- 
thing must  be  very  hot  to  obtain  a  good  seal,  and  for  this  reason 
directions  are  often  given  for  cooking  the  fruit  in  the  jar. 
This  heating  drives  out  some  of  the  air,  forming  a  partial 
vacuum  in  the  jar.  At  this  point  the  clamp  is  pushed  down, 
preventing  entrance  of  air  as  the  jar  cools.  The  jar  is  then 


54  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

sealed  by  the  pressure  of  air  on  the  outside.  Sometimes  a  jar  of 
this  type  is  spoken  of  as  a  "  self  -sealing "  jar.  This  sort  of  seal- 
ing has  great  advantage  over  the  old  screw-top  jars. 

Screw-top  jars  which  demand  handling  while  hot  are  difficult 
to  screw  on  tightly  enough  to  insure  good  sealing.     If  the  tops 


FIG.  36. — Commercial  jars  for  special  products:    A.  10-ounce  vase-shaped  jar,  hermetic  top. 
B.  12-ounce  glass-top,  screw-rim  jar,  rubber  used.     C.  10-ounce  jar  with  hermetic  cap. 

are  screwed  down  by  hand,  the  wrists  become  tired  and  cramped 
before  many  are  sealed,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether  all  are  suffi- 
ciently tight.  There  is  a  simple  tool  on  the  market  for  screw- 
ing on  tops. 

The  zinc  top  should  not  be  used,  because  fruits  and  vegetables 
which  contain  acids  are  unfit  to  eat  after  contact  with  the 
zinc  cap.  New  tops  should  be  secured  for  all  jars  of  this 
type.  The  glass  used  in  this  type  jar  is  usually  tinted.  While 
the  fruit  will  be  easily  kept  in  this  glass,  it  gives  the  fruit  an 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT  55 

unnatural  appearance,  and  it  is  not  so  attractive.  When  pack- 
ing fresh  fruit  and  vegetables  for  sale,  the  fair  natural  color  en- 
hances the  value  of  the  finished  product. 

Safety-valve  Seal. — The  jar  with  the  safety-valve  seal  is 
beautiful.  It  is  made  of  clear  flint  glass,  and  the  seal  is  the 
same  principle  as  the  lightning  seal.  While  being  processed  the 
lid  is  held  in  place  by  a  wide  black  clamp  which  may  be  re- 


A  B  c 

FIG.   37. — Appropriate  containers  for  exhibit  purposes:     A.   Quart  square  jar.     B.   Cham- 
pagne shaped  ketchup  bottle.     C.   Pint  square  jar. 

moved  when  the  jar  is  cold  and  sealed.  It  then  presents  a  very 
attractive  appearance.  Jars  of  this  type  are  more  expensive 
than  the  other  types  mentioned.  They  are  often  used  by  select 
preserving  kitchens  that  furnish  goods  for  'high-class,  fancy  trade 
(Figs.  36,  37  and  38). 

The  "Hermetic"  Jar. — The  hermetical  sealing  jar  with  the 
gold  lacquered  cap  and  wire  clamp  is  used  more  often  for  com- 


56 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


mercial  purposes,  though  there  are  some  household  jars  of  this 
type  on  the  market.  The  cap  is  said  to  be  washed  in  a  gold 
lacquer  that  will  not  be  affected  by  vegetable  or  fruit  acids 
coming  in  contact  with  it.  Around  the  inside  edge  of  the  cap 
a  gasket  or  rim  of  sealing  composition  fills  the  space  between  the 
cap  and  jar,  and  this  softens  when  heated  and  adheres  to  the 
jar.  The  sealing  of  this  jar  is  practically  the  same  as  the  light- 
ning seal  jar.  Heating  forces  out  the  air  and  forms  a  partial 
vacuum  in  the  jar;  then  the  wire  clamp,  which  should  be 


A  B 

FIG.   38. — Individual  containers:    A.  4-ounce  vase-shaped  jar,  hermetic  cap.     B.  Straight- 
sided  4-ounce  jar,  hermetic  cap. 

placed  on  the  jar  at  the  beginning  of  the  process,  furnishes 
sufficient  pressure  to  prevent  cold  air  from  rushing  into  the  jar 
as  it  cools.  It  is  the  pressure  of  the  outside  air,  nearly  sixteen 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  which  keeps  the  jar  sealed.  Com- 
mercial products  are  often  packed  in  jars  with  this  type  seal. 
Because  the  sealing  composition  is  under  the  edge  of  the  cap  and 
not  exposed,  it  is  not  so  liable  to  become  punctured  by  mice 
and  roaches  nibbling  it,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  where  rubbers 
are  used. 

Rubber  rings  dry  and  deteriorate  with  age.     They  become 
porous  and  sometimes  crack.     Wihen  this  happens,  the  air  gets 


PREPARATION  AND  EQUIPMENT 


57 


in  and,  because  the  partial  vacuum  is  broken,  the  seal  is  no 
longer  good  and  the  product  will  spoil.  A  perfect  seal,  where 
the  rubber  ring  is  exposed,  will  hold  only  so  long  as  the  life  of 
the  rubber  lasts.  In  selecting  rubber  rings  it  is  wise  to  secure 
the  best  and  always  use  new  ones.  The  price  of  a  dozen  rings 
is  less  than  the  value  of  the  contents  of  one  jar,  so  it  is  economy 
to  have  new  rubbers  each  year.  The  thick,  red  and  gray  rubber 
rings  are  among  the  best.  The  black  one  is  better  than  the 


FIG.  39. — Box  of  rubbers  and  a  jar. 

white,  because  the  chemicals  used  to  bleach  this  kind  cause 
it  to  dry,  crumble,  and  crack  in  less  time  than  the  better-grade 
rubber  (Fig.  39). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  care  necessary  to  protect  the  food  from  insects  while  work- 

ing on  the  porch  or  under  the  trees. 

2.  When    considering    a    piece    of    equipment,    what    would    determine    its 

selection  ? 

3.  What  principles  are  involved  in  the  arrangement  of  tables  in  Fig.  10? 

4.  State,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  the  features  to  be  considered  in 

the  selection  of  containers. 

5.  Why  are  plain  tin  containers  unsatisfactory  for  some  fruits  and  vege- 

tables?    What  kind   of   containers  would  you  use   for  these  foods? 
When  is  glass  preferable  to  any  other? 

6.  Describe  the  principle  of  the  so-called  "  lightning  seal." 

7.  When  a  rubber  ring  is  used  in  the  seal,  which  kind  would  you  select  and 

why  should  it  be  renewed  every  year? 


58  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  BITTING,  A.  W.  and  K.  G.,  "  Canning  and  How  to  Use  Canned  Foods," 

1916.  The  National  Canners'  Association,  Washington,  D.  C.  30 
cents. 

2.  BEEAZEALE,  J.  F.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,   Farmers' 

Bulletin  359,  "  Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home,"  1910.  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

3.  BREAZEALE,  J.  FM  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers' 

Bulletin  521,  "  Canning  Tomatoes  at  Home  and  in  Club  Work,"  1913. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

4.  Gout-D,  H.  Pf  and  FLETCHER,  W.  F.,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 

culture, Farmers'  Bulletin  426,  "  Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm," 
1910.  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

5.  MCDONALD,  MAY  C.,  and  STANLEY,  LOUISE,  University  of  Missouri,  "  The 

Preservation  of  Food  in  the  Home,"  vol.  15,  No.  7,  Extension  Series  6, 
March,  1914.  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo. 

6.  ROSE,    FLORA,    Cornell    Reading    Courses,    "  The    Preservation    of    Food 

in  the  Home,"  1912,  parts  1,  2,  and  3.  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

7.  SHAW,  S.  B.,  North  Carolina  Department  of  Agriculture,   "  The  Home 

Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables."  North  Carolina  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

8.  United    States    Department    of    Agriculture,    States    Relations    Service, 

Office  of  Extension  Work  in  the  South:  A-81,  "Canning,  Preserving, 
and  Pickling";  782,  "Peppers";  775,  "Use  of  Vegetables  from  Win- 
ter Garden."  Office  of  Extension  Work  in  the  South,  States  Relations 
Service,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CANNING  IN  TIN 

SINCE  canning  in  tin  is  becoming  much  more  widely  used  in 
the  household,  it  may  well  be  presented  first.  On  the  farm,  for 
instance,  where  there  is  a  large  yield  of  fruit  or  vegetables  to 
be  canned,  the  canning  process  in  tin  can  be  handled  wi%?more 
speed,  less  danger  of  breakage,  and  at  a  very  much  s^naller 
initial  cost.  For  all  these  reasons,  in  many  localities  the  canning 
in  tin  is  preferred. 

Preparation  for  Canning  in  Tin. — Special  equipment  for 
canning  in  tin  should  be  assembled  early  in  the  season,  as  prices 
are  better  then  and  there  may  be  difficulty  later  in  securing 
.certain  supplies,  as  already  suggested.  The  cans  should  be 
ordered  early  and  the  processing  vessel,  whether  it  be  a  com- 
mercial canner  or  one  made  at  home,  should  be  installed  some 
time  before  the  actual  canning  is  to  begin.  When  the  canner  is 
decided  upon  and  the  solder  hemmed  caps  and  cans  ordered, 
the  next  to  consider  is  the  tipping  copper,  capping  steel,  and  a 
file.  To  clean  these  tools,  a  canning  flux  should  be  made  and 
some  powdered  sal  ammoniac  placed  in  a  can  to  rub  the  tools 
with  after  heating. 

Making  Flux. — Put  some  commercial  hydrochloric  (muri- 
atic) acid  in  a  glass  or  crockery  vessel  (not  metal),  add  strips 
of  sheet'  zinc  until  no  more  can  be  dissolved.  To  this  add  an 
equal  quantity  of  water.  Label  this  "Flux"  and  use  carefully. 
Very  little  must  be  used,  and  care  must  be  had  not  to  allow  any 
of  it  to  enter  the  can,  as  it  will  injure  the  contents.  The  use  of 
flux  is  described  under  "Capping."  When  canning,  have  one 
vessel  (a  Can  will  do)  with  enough  flux  in  it  to  clean  the  tools. 
Keep  separately,  in  a  glass  bottle,  the  quantity  to  be  used  in 
Dealing  cans. 

Cleaning  and 'Tinning  the  Steel  and  Copper. — It  is  of  first 
importance  to  have  capping  steel  and  tipping  copper  in  good 

59 


GO  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

condition.  In  case  they  are  rusty,  they  may  have  to  be  filed. 
Otherwise,  rubbing  them  with  coarse  sand-paper  or  on  a  brick 
will  smooth  them.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  edge  of  the 
capping  steel  true  if  the  file  is  used.  Both  the  tipping  copper 
and  capping  steel  must  be  kept  tinned  or  coated  with  solder  to 
make  the  solder  flow  evenly  when  sealing  the  cans.  Place  a 
handful  of  sal  ammoniac  mixed  with  a  few  pieces  of  solder  (one- 
half  cupful  of  sal  ammoniac  and  three  inches  wire  solder)  into 
an  old  can.  This  proportion  will  be  sufficient  for  retimiing 
the  tools  one  time.  The  sal  ammoniac  can  be  used  again  if 
more  solder  is  added.  Heat  the  already  smooth  tipping  copper 
and  capping  steel  until  almost  red  hot,  dip  into  the  flux,  then 
into  the  sal  ammoniac  and  solder,  turning  them  about  and 
rubbing  them  until  bright  and  well  coated  with  solder;  then 
dip  into  the  flux  again.  The  best  sealing  can  be  done  with  the 
least  effort  if  the  tools  are  kept  in  a  clean,  bright  condition. 

Plenty  of  clean  white  cloths  should  be  at  hand  during  the  can- 
ning process.  There  should  be  wire  lifters  for  handling  hot  cans 
and  blanching  trays.  Sufficient  wood  should  be  piled  near  the 
canner  for  keeping  up  the  fire.  A  tub  of  cold  water  for  cooling 
the  tins  as  soon  as  they  are  removed  from  the  processor  should 
be  at  one  side  of  the  canner,  and  there  should  be  a  water  supply 
near  at  hand,  because  it  will  be  necessary  to  change  the  water 
from  time  to  time  in  order  to  have  a  cool  supply.  The  equipment 
should  be  placed,  if  possible,  where  it  can  be  used  for  the  entire 
season. 

Having  outlined  a  convenient  arrangement  of  this  equip- 
ment, the  various  steps  in  the  process  of  canning  in  tin  may  next 
be  considered. 

STEPS  TAKEN  IN  CANNING  IN  TIN 

1.  Selection  of  good  sound  fruit  and  vegetables  is  of  para- 
mount importance.  Unless  the  product  to  be  canned  is  of  the 
highest  grade  and  in  prime  condition,  it  is  useless  to  hope  that 
special  care  and  skilful  packing  will  result  in  anything  more 
than  disappointment  and  failure.  In  securing  fine  quality,  much 
depends  upon  having  the  vegetable  or  fruit  absolutely  fresh, 


CANNING  IN  TIN 


61 


crisp,  and  clean,  and  kept  cool.  All  steps,  from  beginning  to 
end,  of  any  lot  of  canning  should  be  carried  through  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  A  good  slogan  is,  "  One  hour  from  the  field  to  the 
can." 

2.  Sorting  and  grading  should  be  done  very  carefully,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  and  degree  of  maturity  and  ripeness.  Use 
only  uniformly  well-ripened  products  (Figs.  40  and  41).  Dis- 
card all  defective  ones,  and  use  together  those  of  the  same  size. 
In  canning,  the  flavor  is  retained  only  when  young,  tender, 


FIG.  40. — Sorting  and  grading  tomatoes. 

quickly  grown  vegetables  are  used.  Commercial  concerns  some- 
times have  what  they  call  grading  paddles.  They  consist  of  a 
flat  board  with  holes,  which  correspond  to  the  opening  in  the 
glass  jar  in  size.  Peaches,  for  instance,  which  are  too  small 
are  set  aside  to  be  packed  as  sliced  peaches  or  for  sweet  pickles, 
and  the  ones  which  are  too  large  are  kept  together,  while  all 
that  slip  through  easily  are  made  up  together  in  one  batch. 
This  grading  before  cooking  simplifies  sorting  when  packing, 
saves  much  time,  and  gives  a  more  uniform  product  throughout. 
3.  Scalding,  Peeling,  and  Coring. — Some  fruits,  such  as 
peaches  and  tomatoes,  are  scalded  in  order  to  peel  them  smoothly. 


6#;  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Put  fruit  or  vegetables  to  be  scalded  into  trays  or  squares  of 
cheesecloth  and  lower  into  boiling  water  for  one  minute  (Fig. 
42). x- Remove  at  once  to  prevent  cooking.  Plunge  into  cold 
water,  which  prevents  softening  of  the  fruit  and  causes  it  to 
shrink,  making  the  skin  more  easily  peeled  from  the  flesh.  When 
the  skin  does  not  come  off  clean  without  tearing  bits  of  flesh, 
it  is  an  indication  that  the  scalding  has  not  been  successful. 
This  may  be  due  to  having  the  fruit  too,  green,  to  overcooking, 
or  to  adding  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  at  one  time,  which  too 


FIG.  41. — Uniform  tomatoes  together. 

quickly  cooled  the  water.     A  slender-pointed  knife  is  useful  for 
peeling  and  coring. 

4.  Blanching  consists  of  plunging  the  vegetable  or  fruit  into 
a  large  amount  of  boiling  water  for  a  short  time.  A  wire 
basket  or  square  of  cheesecloth  serves  for  handling  large  quan- 
tities of  fruit  at  one  time.  The  blanch  gives  a  more  thorough 
cleaning,  because  the  scalding  water  tends  to  remove  the  bacteria 
from  the  surface  of  the  fruit  or  vegetable.  It  also  improves  the 
flavor  and  removes  strong  odor  and  flavor  from  certain  kinds  of 
vegetables.  The  fruit  shrinks  in  the  blanch  and  becomes  more 
flexible.  A  full  pack  is  then  more  easily  made.  The  time  re- 


CANNING  IN  TIN 


63 


quired  for  blanching  varies  with  the  state  of  maturity  of  the 
different  fruits  and  vegetables.  Blanching  peaches  and  pears 
gives  them  a  more  transparent  appearance,  better  texture,  and 
mellow  flavor.  Using  it  for  cherries  will  prevent  splitting  and 
cracking.  Spraying  fruit  with  cold  water  after  blanching  will 
make  it  finer.  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  drop  the  vegetable  into  a 


FIG.  42. — Scalding  tomatoes,  using  a  square  of  cheesecloth. 

cold  salt-bath  for  an  instant  after  the  blanching  to  make  it 
more  crisp.  In  the  case  of  green  beans,  peas,  and  okra,  such  a 
cold  salt  dip  may  help  to  keep  the  green  color. 

5.  Sterilizing  containers  is  very  essential  before  packing 
them.  This  may  be  done  while  the  fruit  is  being  sorted.  Wash 
the  cans  and  drop  into  boiling  water  for  ten  to  fifteen  minutes. 
On  removing  them  from  the  water,  turn  open  ends  down  on  a 


64  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

clean  towel  to  keep  out  dust  and  air.     If  stacking  them,  turn 
open  ends  of  two  cans  together. 

6.  Packing. — The  can  should  be  filled  as  full  as  possible  with- 
out crushing  pieces.     There  should  be  no  space  which  would 
allow  the  pieces  to  move  about  and  bruise  and  break  one  another. 
In  general,  when  packing  in  tin  for  the  market,  it  is  well  to  do 
sufficient  weighing  to  insure  minimum  weights  from  falling  below 
the  standard  chosen.     Federal  and  most  state  laws  require  that 
cans  be  filled  as  full  of  food  as  is  practicable  for  processing, 
and  that  they  contain  only  enough  liquor  to  fill  the  space  and 
cover  the  contents.     Plan  in  advance  and  work  rapidly.     Do  not 
allow  filled  cans  to  stand  before  adding  liquid  and  exhausting, 
because  to  do  so  will  injure  the  product.     Add  seasoning  and 
mark  the  cans  with  pencil  or  knife  to  show  contents. 

7.  Adding    Water,    Brine,    or    Syrup. — Add   the   liquid  to 
within  one-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  top.     Shake  the  can  and  tap 
gently  on  the  table  to  dispel  air  within  the  can.     Now  clean 
and  wipe  the  groove  around  the  opening  and  slip  on  the  solder 
hemmed  cap  (Fig.  43). 

8.  Capping. — Use  a  small  brush,  cord,  or  little  mop,  made  by 
tying  a  clean  white  cloth  around  the  end  of  a  small  stick  for 
applying  the   flux   around   the   groove,   being  very   careful   to 
allow  none  of  it  to  enter  the  can.     The  flux  is  used  to  make  the 
solder  adhere  to  the  tin.     Apply  the  clean,  hot  capping  steel, 
holding  the  cap  firmly  in  place  with  the  center  rod  while  lower- 
ing the  steel.     Turn  the  steel  steadily  until  the  solder  flows: 
a  half  turn  forward,   a  half  turn  back,   with  a  sudden  twist 
forward  again  to  swing  the  melted  solder  around   the  groove 
evenly  while  lifting  the  steel.     Hold  the  center  rod  firmly  until 
the  solder  cools,  making  a  perfect  seal. 

9.  Exhausting. — Place  the  cans  in  trays  and  lower  into  boil- 
ing water  to  within  one  inch  of  the  top  to  drive  the  air  out  of 
the  cans.     Let  them  stay  the  shortest  time  possible  to  drive  out 
the  air.     Dense  foods  like  corn  and  sweet  potatoes  require  a 
longer  time  for  exhausting  than  products  which  are  more  juicy. 
The  denser  foods  are  poorer  conductors  of  heat,  and  it  takes  a 
longer  time  for  the  contents  in  the  center  of  the  can  to  become 


CANNING  IN  TIN 


65 


heated.  Ordinarily  three  minutes  is  long  enough  for  exhausting 
cans  not  larger  than  No.  3.  Exhausting  is  necessary.  If  omitted, 
the  air  left  in  the  can  expands,  causing  it  to  bulge.  The  can 
may  not  resume  normal  shape,  or,  if  it  does  and  is  exposed  to 


FIG.  43.— Capping 


FIG.  44.— Tipping. 


a  warmer  temperature,  it  may  again  expand,  giving  the  appear- 
ance of  a  "swell."  Future  orders  may  be  cut  off  because  of  a 
single  can  like  this.  The  presence  of  air  in  the  can  may  cause 
the  tin  to  dissolve  more  rapidly  and  enter  into  the  food. 

10.  Tipping. — Immediately  after  exhausting,  close  the  small 
5 


66 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


hole  at  the  top  of  the  can.  Dry  the  cap,  apply  flux  as  for 
capping,  and  use  a  little  wire  solder  (Fig.  44).  Hold  the  hot 
tipping  copper  in  the  right  hand,  placing  tihe  point  over  the  hole, 
and  barely  touch  the  solder  to  it.  Bring  the  hot  copper  ver- 
tically over  the  hole  and  lift  it  so  that  only  a  bead  will  drop 
and  make  a  neat,  round  tip. 

11.  Processing  is  heating  to  sterilize  the  contents  of  the  cans, 
which  have  been  packed,  exhausted,  and  tipped.  In  a  hot- water 
canner,  the  water  should  be  boiling  vigorously  when  the  cans 
go  in.  Lower  the  can  slowly  under  the  water  and  watch  for  a 
shower  of  bubbles.  If  the  bubbles  are  seen,  this  shows  that  there 


FIG.   45. — Heating  tools,  capping,  and  tipping. 

is  a  leak  at  the  point  from  which  the  bubbles  come,  and  the  can 
must  be  taken  out  and  resoldered.  Account  should  be  taken  of 
the  time  beginning  when  the  water  first  boils  after  emerging 
from  the  cans.  Keep  it  boiling  continually.  When  processing 
in  a  steam-pressure  canner,  begin  counting  time  when  the  gauge 
denotes  the  amount  of  pressure  you  wish  to  use  in  processing. 
In  intermittent  processing,  the  vegetable  is  processed  for  forty- 
five  to  sixty  minutes  at  boiling  temperature  on  each  of  three 
successive  days.  The  time  is  sometimes  reduced  to  two  days 
with  very  young,  fresh  string  beans  and  other  more  easily 
sterilized  vegetables. 


CANNING  IN  TIN 


67 


(jg  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

12.  Cooling. — Cool  all  products  in  tin  as  quickly  as  possible 
after  processing  to  stop  the  cooking.     Overcooking  breaks  down 
the  texture  of  fruit  and  injures  the  flavor  and  color.     Plunge 
cans  into  very  cold  water  immediately,  especially  when  process- 
ing  intermittently.     Never  stack   cans   together  until   entirely 
cold.     The  cans  should  be  dried  before  storing  to  prevent  rust- 
ing.    This  may  be  done  by  either  drying  them  witlh  a  cloth  or 
standing  them  in  the  sun  after  the  plunge  in  cold  water. 

13.  Test  for  Defects. — Tap  the  top  of  the  can  with  a  metal, 
and  if  the  containers  are  sealed  a  clear,  ringing  sound  is  noticed. 
If  the  seal  is  imperfect  a  dull  sound  will  be  heard.     It  is  a 
common  sight  in  factories  to  see  a  workman  beating  a  rapid 


FIG.   47.— Labelling. 

tattoo  on  the  ends  of  cans  with  a  metal.  He  can  detect  by  the 
variation  in  sound  or  a  single  blow  when  all  is  not  right  (Figs.  45 
and  46). 

14.  Labelling. — Cans  should  never  be  labelled  until  perfectly 
cold  (Fig.  47).  It  is  better  to  wait  five  or  ten  days  so  as  to  be 
sure  that  they  are  all  sound.  If  products  are  to  be  sold,  they 
should  be  freshly  labelled  just  before  shipping  and  have  the 
net  weight  stated  in  pounds  and  ounces,  with  packer's  name 
and  address  on  each  can.  Place  the  sealed  end  down  so  the 
smooth  end  will  appear  at  the  top  when  standing  on  the  shelf. 
The  paste  used  should  be  placed  only  on  the  label  at  the  end, 
so  that  no  paste  will  touch  the  tin.  It  may  cause  rust  if  the 
paste  touches  the  can. 


CANNING  IN  TIN  (59 


Paste : 


1  cupful  of  flour  1  cupful  of  cold  water 

1  teaspoonful  of  powdered  alum  %   teaspoonful  of  oil  of  cloves 

3  cupfuls  of  boiling  water 

Mix  the  flour  and  one  cup  of  cold  water  thoroughly.  Add 
the  boiling  water  and  bring  slowly  to  the  boiling-point,  beating 
all  the  while  to  prevent  lumps.  Boil  for  five  minutes.  When 
cooked,  add  the  alum  and  oil  of  cloves,  pour  into  glasses  with 
covers.  This  will  keep  for  some  time  and  make  an  excellent 
paste  for  use  in  labelling  cans  and  jars. 

Frequently  the  outside  of  the  cans  is  lacquered  before  label- 
ling to  prevent  rusting.  In  damp  climates,  where  cans  rust 
easily,  this  is  advisable.  An  attractive  label  will  add  a  great  deal 
to  the  appearance  of  the  finished  product,  and  it  should  be 
chosen  carefully  with  this  idea  in  view. 

Any  one  wishing  to  can  for  the  market  should  look  up  the 
state  laws  and  requirements  about  the  matter.  It  is  not  so  neces- 
sary to  be  familiar  with  the  Federal  laws  unless  interstate  ship- 
ments are  to  be  made.  Detailed  information  on  state  laws  and 
regulations  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to  the  State  Food  Com- 
missioner, State  Board  of  Agriculture,  and  Federal  rules  and 
laws  can  be  secured  from  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Write  for  the  publica- 
tions and  state  what  products  are  being  packed  for  sale. 

This  information  is  given  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are 
canning  for  commercial  purposes;  every  one  who  cans  for  the 
market  should  be  encouraged  to  know  the  food  laws.  Such  things 
sound  more  serious  than  they  are,  and  one  should  not  be  over- 
whelmed with  the  seemingly  endless  details  attached  to  the  can- 
ning business.  New  facts  pertaining  to  food  conservation  are 
being  published  constantly,  and  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
various  phases  of  the  subject  should  keep  informed  by  securing 
from  their  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  tlhe  National  Canners'  Association,  from  time 
to  time,  all  publications  and  reports. 


70  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  efficiency  in  canning? 

2.  Describe  the  equipment  needed  and  its  arrangement  when  preparing  to 

can  in  tin. 

3.  How  is  "  flux  "  made  ?     For  what  is  it  used  ? 

4.  What  is  your  standard  for  the  external  appearance  of  a  tin  of  fruit  or 

vegetable?     What  steps  are  necessary  to  secure  this  standard? 

5.  Describe  how  to  coat  with   solder  the  tipping  copper  and  the  capping 

steel. 

6.  When  such  a  tin  has  been  opened,  what  standard  should  the  contents 

equal?     What  steps  are  necessary  to  secure  this  standard? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See  end  of  Chapter  VI,  page  86. 


CHAPTER  V 

CANNING  IN  GLASS 

CANNING  in  glass  is  very  similar  to  canning  in  tin.  The 
same  principles  hold  good  throughout.  The  initial  cost  of  con- 
tainers is  greater  than  when  canning  in  tin,  but  for  home  use 
it  is  more  economical,  because  glass  is  used  year  after  year, 
while  tin  should  be  used  only  a  single  time. 

The  first  four  steps  under  ' '  Canning  in  Tin ' '  are  also  to  be 
followed  when  packing  in  glass  (see  p.  60)  ;  the  additional  steps 
are  given  below.  Convenient  arrangement  of  all  equipment  is 
very  essential  before  undertaking  the  work. 

5.  Sterilizing.— Jars  should  be  washed  and  placed,  side  down, 
in  a  vessel  and  covered  with  cold  water.     The  water  should  be 
slowly  brought  to  a, boil  and  allowed  to  boil  for  fifteen  minutes 
(Fig.  48). 

6.  Packing. — After  selecting  and  sorting  the  fruit  or  vege- 
table for  uniformity  in  ripeness  and  size,  and  after  blanching  it, 
the  fruit  should  be  arranged  in  the  jar  with  reference  to  sym- 
metry and  the  best  use  of  the  space  within  the  container.     In 
placing  the  fruit  or  vegetables  into  a  jar,  a  thin,  flexible  paddle 
or  spatula,  made  out  of  cane  or  soft  white  wood,  is  useful.   It  is 
important  to  have  a  good,  clear  syrup.     Clear,  soft,  or  distilled 
water  should  be  used.     Sometimes  better  results  could  be  ob- 
tained if  the  quantity  of  water  used  for  making  the  syrup  could 
be  first  boiled,  strained,  and  cooled  before  using.     Mix  the  sugar 
and  water  by  stirring  as  it  heats,  to  be  certain  the  syrup  is 
uniform  (Figs.  49,  50,  and  52) . 

7.  Paddling. — A   more   slender  paddle   is  used   for   taking 
bubbles  of  air  out  after  the  liquid  has  been  added.     This  is  done 
by  running  the  paddle  down  the  side  of  the  jar  and  touching 
the  bubble  with  the  rounded  end  of  the  paddle.    The  air  creeps 
up  the  paddle  to  escape  and  is  displaced  by  the  liquid.     More 
liquid  should  be  added  after  paddling  in  order  to  have  the  jar 

71 


72  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

full  to  overflowing.     These  paddles  can  easily  be  made  at  home 
(Fig.  51).    Bamboo  cane  is  suitable  material  for  making  them; 


FIG.  48. — Sterilizing  glass  jars. 


FIG.  49. — Packing  uniform  pieces  of  rhubarb. 


an  old  fishing  pole  will  do.     Split  the  cane,  cut  the  paddle  nine 
to  twelve  inches  long,  leaving  a  joint  at  the  top  for  a  handle. 


CANNING  IN  GLASS 


73 


FIG.  50. — Well-packed  jar  of  peaches. 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Whittle  the  other  end  until  flat,  thin,  and  flexible.  Then  sand- 
paper. If  green  bamboo  cane  is  used,  place  in  the  sun  to  dry 
after  making  the  paddle. 

8.  Adjusting  the  Rubber  and  Cap. — Be  sure  the  rubber  is 
carefully  flattened  in  its  groove  and  no  particle  of  fruit  or  seed 
is  present  on  it  before  placing  on  the  cap.  When  a  glass-top 
jar  with  wire  clamp  is  used,  place  the  lid  on  evenly  and  raise 
both  clamps  up,  the  upper  one  fastened  to  hold  the  lid  in  place. 
When  a  screw-top  jar  is  used,  screw  the 
cap  evenly  about  half  way.  With  a  her- 
metic jar  no  rubber  ring  is  necessary; 
simply  fasten  the  cap  in  place  on  the 
jar  with  the  clamp.  The  hermetic  jar  is 
self-sealing  as  it  cools,  and  does  not  need 
to  have  any  adjusting  of  the  cap  or  clamp 
after  processing,  as  is  the  case  with  each 
of  the  other  above-named  jars;  simply 
leave  the  clamp  in  place  until  the  jar  is 
entirely  cold. 

9.  Processing. — Place  the  jars  on  a 
wooden,  galvanized,  or  wire  rack  to  hold 
them  off  the  bottom  of  the  processor, 
which  is  directly  over  the  fire.  Sometimes 
a  cloth  is  put  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel 
before  placing  jars,  but  this  is  not  a  good 

Practice>     sinC6     the     Weight     of     the     jars 

presses  the  cloth  against  the  bottom 
of  the  processor  and  often  causes  it  to  stick  and  burn.  A  rack 
which  holds  the  jars  up  an  inch  or  two  off  the  bottom  is  better. 
In  a  hot-water  canner  the  water  around  the  jars  should  be  of 
the  same  temperature  as  the  contents  of  the  jar  to  prevent  them 
from  cracking,  and  the  water  should  come  within  two  inches  of 
the  tops  of  the  jars.  Have  a  tight  cover  for  the  vessel  to  keep 
in  the  steam.  Do  not  count  time  until  the  water  begins  to  boil. 
Keep  it  boiling  steadily  for  the  time  required.  Seal  the  jars 
air-tight  promptly  at  the  end  of  the  processing,  and  remove 
them  from  the  bath,  being  extremely 'careful  not  to  allow  a  cold 


CANNING  IN  GLASS 


75 


76  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

draught  to  strike  them.  In  intermittent  processing  raise  the 
clamp  of  tiie  jar  at  the  beginning  of  each  processing  to  allow  for 
expansion.  Seal  at  the  close  of  each  processing.  The  hermetic 
jar  is  not  a  suitable  one  for  intermittent  processing.  Processing 
in  glass  in  a  steam-pressure  canner  is  described  in  a  later  chapter, 
*  'Processing  at  High  Temperatures"  (see  p.  87). 

10.  Labelling. — Each  jar  should  be  washed  and  polished 
before  labelling.  Here  again  the  choice  of  the  label  should 
be  made  carefully.  One  just  large  enough  to  have  printed 
the  necessary  requirements  is  sufficient.  Choose  a  neat  label: 
white  is  preferable,  with  plain,  simple  black  printing.  A  fancy 
colored  label  may  not  be  in  harmony  with  the  color  of  the 
contents  of  the  jar  and  will  detract  from  the  attractiveness  of 
the  product.  Place  the  label  on  the  plain  side  of  the  jar,  mid- 
way between  the  seams  and  one-quarter  inch  from  the  lower 
edge.  When  labelling  products  to  be  sold,  the  name  of  the 
contents,  name  and  address  of  the  packer,  and  net  weight  in 
pounds  and  ounces  must  be  stated. 

Storing  Canned  Products. — Store  the  canned  products  in 
a  cool,  dry,  dark  place.  Light  will  cause  the  color  of  the 
products  in  glass  to  fade,  while  products  in  tin  are,  of  course, 
not  affected  by  light. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  in  outline  form  and  in  order  the  steps  necessary  when  canning1  in 

glass. 

2.  What  steps  in  this  process  differ  from  the  steps  in  canning* in  tin?     To 

what  are  the  differences  due? 

3.  Which  container  is  more  economical  for  home  use?     Why  is  this  true? 

4.  State  definitely  the  principles  which  are  the  basis  for  all  kinds  of  can- 

ning. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

See  end  of  Chapter  VI,  pages  83  and  86. 


CHAPTER  VI 
PROCESSING— HOT-WATER  BATH 

PROCESSING  is  the  term  applied  to  the  operation  of  sterilizing 
or  heating  to  destroy  bacteria  so  that  the  canned  goods  will  keep. 

All  fruits  and  juicy  vegetables  are  better  in  color  and 
texture  if  sterilized  at  or  near  the  boiling-point  (212°  Fahren- 
heit). For  this  purpose  the  hot-water  bath  is  commonly  used. 
Sometimes  these  oufits  can  easily  be  made  at  home,  according  to 
the  amount  of  canning  which  is  to  be  done. 

Homemade  Canners. — If  only  a  few  jars  or  cans  are  to  be 
processed  at  a  time,  then  fiat-bottom  vessels,  such  as  a  wash- 
boiler,  ham  boiler,  preserving  kettle,  or  bucket  deep  enough  to 
permit  of  being  covered  after  the  jars  or  cans  are  placed  on  the 
false  bottom  inside,  will  serve  the  purpose  (Fig.  53).  When 
any  of  these  utensils  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  false 
bottom  on  which  to  set  the  jars  or  cans  while  processing.  Narrow 
strips  of  wood  or  wire  netting  made  of  medium-sized  galvanized 
iron  may  be  used  for  this  rack.  The  vessel  should  be  equipped 
with  a  tight  cover,  preferably  tin,  which  is  kept  in  place  while 
the  sterilizing  is  being  done  (Fig.  54).  Such  small  outfits  are 
intended  for  use  on  an  ordinary  cook  stove  or  range. 

A  homemade  canner  for  use  out  of  doors,  where  larger  quan- 
tities can  be  handled,  may  be  made  out  of  tubs  or  fifty-pound 
lard  cans.  Heat  for  these  canners  is  furnished  by  portable 
stoves,  or  by  furnaces  made  of  brick  or  stone  (Figs.  55  and  56). 

Commercial  Outfits. — The  purchase  of  an  expensive  or 
especially  made  outfit  in  which  to  do  the  cooking  is  not  necessary. 
There  are,  however,  a  number  of  inexpensive  commercial  out- 
fits which  give  very  satisfactory  results.  Some  of  these  canners 
are  well  built  and  excellent  work  can  be  done,  both  for  com- 
mercial purposes  and  for  home  use.  These  outfits  range  in  size 
from  those  having  a  four-can  capacity  to  those  having  a  capacity 
of  a  few  hundred  cans.  The  price  varies  according  to  size  of 
the  canner  and  the  number  of  tools  and  accessories  included  in 
the  outfit, 

77 


78 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FIG.   53. — An  ordinary  bucket  used  as  a  processor. 


FIG.  54.— A  wash-boiler  with  false  bottom  makes  a  convenient  processor, 


PROCESSING— HOT-WATER  BATH 


79 


Manufacturers  furnish,  catalogues  Shaving  full  descriptions 
and  price-lists  of  these  various  outfits,  and  in  order  to  secure  a 
canner  best  suited  to  conditions  a  study  of  different  catalogues 
will  help  to  make  the  decision.  The  requisites  of  a  good  com- 
mercial hot-water  outfit  may  be  enumerated  thus:  First,  good 
quality  of  material  used  and  of  workmanship  in  the  construc- 
tion; next,  the  convenience  and  cost  of  operation,  in  order  that 


FIG.  55. — Canner  made  of  tubs  for  outdoor  use. 

the   best   results   can   be   obtained   with   the   least   possible   ex- 
penditure of  time,  labor,  and  fuel. 

Equipment    Accompanying    the    Purchased    Canner. — The 
usual  portable  canner  for  out-of-door  use  consists  of  the  following : 


Canner 
Fire-box 
Return  flue 
Water  tank 
Trays  or  wire  baskets 
Chimney 
Tight  cover 


Accessories 
Tipping  copper 
Capping  steel 
Can  tongs 
Tray  lifters 
Fluxing  brush 
Charcoal  bucket  or 
Fire-pot      for      heating 
tools 


Materials 

Bundle  of  wire  solder 
Powdered  sal  ammoniac 
Bottle  of  flux 
Coarse     sand-paper     or 
file 


80 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Some  canners  are  round  and  some  rectangular  in  shape.  The 
lower  section  or  fire-box  has  a  small  opening  in  the  door  through 
which  the  soldering  tools  may  be  placed  for  heating.  The  water 
in  the  upper  section  will  heat  more  quickly  if  a  smoke  passage 

is  placed  in  such  a  way  that  the 
water  chamber  is  heated  from 
the  smoke  passage  as  well  as 
from  the  fire-box.  Sometimes  the 
chimney  is  attached  at  the  front 
of  the  canner  near  the  fire-box 
door ;  this  necessitates  the  smoke 
returning  from  the  outlet  at 
the  other  end  of  the  fire-box  back 
to  the  chimney,  and,  if  the 
water  chamber  extends  down  be- 
tween the  smoke  passage  and 
the  fire-box,  the  extra  heat  ob- 
tained in  this  way  will  cause  the 
water  to  boil  more  quickly,  thus 
saving  time  and  fuel.  The  bas- 
kets or  trays  for  holding  the  cans 
in  the  canner  are  made  of  gal- 
vanized metal,  with  a  wire  bot- 
tom and  wire  handles.  This  bas- 
ket serves  as  a  false  bottom  arid 
fits  into  the  water  tank,  resting 
slightly  above  the  top  of  the  fire- 
box and  smoke  passages.  A 
wooden  rack  should  be  placed  be- 
low this  basket  when  canning 

in  glass  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  metal  tray  will  not  rest  directly 
on  the  fire-box.  A  basket  full  of  cans  may  be  lifted  out  with 
wire  tongs.  The  top  of  the  canner  is  fitted  with  a  tight  cover, 
which  keeps  in  the  heat  (Fig.  57) .. 

Canners  should  have  water  in  the  upper  section  before  a  fire 
is  built;  if  this  is  neglected  with  the  type  of  canner  which  is 


FIG.  56. — A  homemade  canner   with 
brick  fire-box  and  tub. 


PROCESSING— HOT- WATER  BATH 


81 


FIG.   57. — Showing  construction  of  a  hot-water  canner. 
(Phillips  &  Buttorff,  Nashville,  Tenn.) 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


soldered  together,  the  solder  will  melt  and  the  water  will  leak  out, 
making  the  canner  useless  until  it  is  mended. 

The  chimney  should  be  tall  enough,  to  provide  a  good  draught 
and  to  carry  the  \smoke  away.     The  smoke  from  a  pipe  which  is 


FIG.  58. —  A  kerosene  stove 
burning  a  gas  flame.  (Globe  Gas 
Light  Company, Boston, Mass.) 


Fio.   60. 


FIG.  59. — A  folding  two-burner  gasoline  stove.  (W.  J.  Baker  Co.,  Newport,  Ky.) 

too  short  is  most  objectionable  to  those  who  are  canning  (Fig. 
57). 

For  Heating  the  Tools. — The  tools  may  be  heated  in  the 
fire-box  of  the  canner,  but  the  suggested  fire-pot,  charcoal  bucket, 
or  gas-flame  stove  is  better  for  this  purpose,  since  the  tools  heat 
more  quickly  and  do  not  have  to  be  cleaned  so  often  (Fig.  58) .  An 


1 


PROCESSING! — HOT-WATER  BATH  83 

ordinary  bucket  with  a  hole  cut  out  of  one  side  near  the  bottom 
will  make  a  good  substitute  for  a  fire-pot  if  charcoal  or  corn- 
cobs are  burned  in  it.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  fuel 
burned  to  a  bed  of  glowing  coals  before  attempting  to  heat  the 
tools.  This  is  necessary  to  keep  the  copper  and  steel  smooth 
and  clean  (Figs.  58,  59  and  60). 

A  Time-table  for  Use  in  Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables 
When  the  Hot-water  Process  is  Used. — To  obtain  satisfactory 
results  with  these  outfits,  consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
length  of  the  sterilization  period,  which  is  indicated  in  the  table 
below,  in  the  column  headed  "Process."  Since  the  temperature 
cannot  be  controlled  below  the  boiling-point,  it  is  necessary  to 
start  counting  the  time  when  the  water  begins  to  boil  and  keep 
the  boiling  constant  throughout  the  process.  Complete  steriliza- 
tion can  be  obtained  by  following  this  table  if  the  essentials  as 
outlined  in  other  chapters  are  fulfilled. 

Intermittent  Processing.— The  vegetable  is  processed  for 
forty-five  to  sixty  minutes  at  boiling  temperature  on  each  of 
three  successive  days. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  an  outfit  for  processing  by  the  hot-water  bath  which  may  be 

made  at  home.     Explain  the  principle  which   makes  necessary  each 
detail  described  above. 

2.  If    purchasing   a   commercial   hot- water   outfit,    what   points   should   be 

considered? 

3.  How  will  the  position  of  the  chimney  on  a  commercial  canner  influence 

the  time  needed  to  heat  the  water? 

4.  Describe  a  homemade  fire-pot.     What  fuel  may  be  used  in  it?     In  what 

condition  should  the  fuel  be  before  placing  the  tools  in  it?     Why  is 
this  care  necessary  ? 

5.  Why    do    starchy    vegetables    require    a    longer    processing    than    those 

containing  a  large  percentage  of  water? 

6.  Why    is    it    necessary    to    keep    the    temperature    constant    during    the 

processing? 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


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86  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  BITTING,  A.  W.  and  K.  G.,  "  Canning  and  How  to  Use  Canned  Foods," 

1916.  Published  by  the  National  Canners'  Association,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  30  cents. 

2.  BITTING,  A.   W.,  Bulletin   9,  "  Processing  and   Process  Devices."     Na- 

tional Canners'  Association,  Washington,  D.  C. 

3.  Commercial  catalogues   from  manufacturers  of  canners,  glass  and  tin 

containers,  and  other  equipment. 

4.  CBESWELL,  MARY  E.,  and  POWELL,  OLA,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  853,  "  Home  Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables," 
States  Relations  Service,  Office  of  Extension  Work  South.  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C, 

5.  CRESWELL,  MARY  E.,  Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture,  "  Home  Can- 

ning of  Fruit  and  Vegetables,"  1915.  Published  by  the  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture,  Athens,  Ga. 

6.  "  Creole  Cook  Book,"  1914.  Published  by  the  Picayune,  New  Orleans,  La. 

$1.25. 

7.  FARMER,  FANNIE  MERRITT,  "  Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book,"  1907. 

Little,   Brown  &  Co.,   Boston,   Mass.     $1.80. 

8.  McKiMMON,  JANE  S.,  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Extension  Service, 

"  Canning  and  Preserving  with  4-H  Brand  Recipes,"  June,  191G.  State 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

9.  SPRING,  HELEN  M.,  "  Individual  Recipes  in  Use  at  Drexel   Institute," 

1909.     John  C.  Winston  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.     25  cents. 

10.  United   States  Department  of  Agriculture,   Bureau  of  Chemistry:    In- 

formation concerning  state  laws  governing  packages  and  labelling  of 
canned  products  can  be  obtained  from  State  Boards  of  Agriculture. 
Similar  information  concerning  interstate  shipment  of  canned 
products  can  be  obtained  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

11.  United    States    Department   of   Agriculture,    States   Relations   Service, 

Office  of  Extension  Work  in  the  South:  A-81,  "Canning,  Preserving, 
and  Pickling";  782,  "Peppers";  775,  "Use  of  Vegetables  from 
Winter  Garden."  Can  be  secured  from  the  Office  of  Extension  Work 
in  the  South,  States  Relations  Service,  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

12.  VANDERBILT,    SADIE   B.,    Columbia   University,    "  Physical    and   Chemi- 

cal Tests  for  the  Housewife,"  1913.  Technical  Education  Bulletin 
No.  19.  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City, 
N.  Y.  10  cents. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PROCESSING  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURE 

Steam  Retorts. — Iron  boxes  or  steel  cylinders,  known  as 
retorts,  are  used  in  processing  by  steam  at  a  temperature  above 
the  boiling-point  (i.  e.,  higher  than  212°  Fahrenheit) .  The  retorts 
may  be  vertical  or  horizontal,  the  size  being  determined  by  the 
number  of  cans  to  be  handled  daily. 

In  the  vertical  retorts  steam  may  be  used  alone  or  it  may  be 
introduced  into  water;  in  the  horizontal  retorts  steam  alone  is 
used.  Vertical  retorts  are  used  where  canning  under  high  tem- 
perature is  desired  in  the  home,  and  in  small  canning  plants.  The 
steam  pressure  may  vary  from  five  to  fifteen  pounds,  thus  giving 
a  temperature  of  220°  Fahrenheit  (105°  Centigrade)  to  255° 
Fahrenheit  (124°  Centigrade).  The  proper  control  of  time  and 
temperature  is  very  important.  This  is  regulated  by  recording 
thermometers  and  temperature  controllers  attached  to  the  retort. 

Small  Outfits  for  Home  Canning. — An  expensive  equipment 
is  not  necessary  when  canning  in  small  quantities  at  home.  A 
variety  of  small  steam  canners  for  home  canning  are  on  the  mar- 
ket (Fig.  61).  The  prices  vary  according  to  the  size  and  quality 
of  material  used  in  making  them.  The  construction  of  these  out- 
fits resembles  that  of  the  regulation  steam  boiler.  They  are  made 
of  a  high-grade  metal,  and  the  seams  are  so  riveted,  soldered,  and 
joined  as  to  make  them  water-tight  and  steam-proof.  A  band  of 
packing  is  placed  around  the  groove  in  the  outer  rim  of  the  cover, 
which  keeps  the  inside  chamber  steam-tight  when  the  cover  is 
clamped  on.  This  part  of  the  canner  wears  out  after  a  time  and 
should  be  replaced  if  the  canner  is  to  continue  to  give  the  best 
results. 

A  brass  pet  cock  which  allows  for  the  free  circulation  of  steam 
and  escape  of  dead  air  is  screwed  into  the  cover.  This  should  be 
left  slightly  open  while  processing. 

87 


88  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

FIG.  62. 


FIG.  61. 


FIGS.  61  and  62. — A  steam  retort  for  home  canning. 
(Northwestern  Steel  and  Iron  Works,  Eau  Claire,  Wisconsin.) 


FIQ.  63. — Another  type  known  as  the  water-seal  canner  requires  only  a  small  amount  of 
water  and  it  can  be  raised  quickly  to  the  boiling  point  with  the  use  of  very  little  fuel.  A 
Blight  pressure  can  be  secured. 


PROCESSING  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURE  89 

There  is  a  dial  gauge,  the  needle  of  which  moves  upward  when 
the  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  canner  rises  above  boiling 
(212°  Fahrenheit).  The  figures  on  the  face  of  the  dial  indicate 
the  number  of  pounds  of  steam  pressure  and  also  its  equivalent 


FIG.  64. — Another  steam-pressure  outfit  for  home  canuing. 

degree  of  heat.  A  safety  valve  is  also  attached.  The  ' '  weight  and 
arm ' '  style  valve  automatically  regulates  the  pressure  inside  the 
retort  from  one  to  fifteen  pounds.  The  weight  on  the  arm  may  be 
set  at  any  point  on  the  lever,  as  it  is  made  to  slide  back  and  forth. 


90 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


When  a  certain  time  for  the  process  is  desired  the  steam  gauge 
should  be  watched  until  it  shows  the  required  amount  of  pres- 
sure. Set  the  weight  so  that  enough  steam  will  escape  from  the 
valve  to  retain  that  temperature.  After  the  processing  the  steam 
should  be  let  off  by  raising  the  bar  on  the  valve  or  by  opening  the 
pet  cock  before  removing  the  cover  of  the  canner  (Fig.  64). 

A  wire  basket  or  galvanized  crate  comes  with  the  outfit.  This 
is  a  great  convenience,  for  it  can  be  used  in  blanching,  exhausting, 
and  sterilizing.  While  sterilizing  is  in  progress  this  basket  or 
crate  rests  on  a  false  bottom,  which  is  sometimes  made  of  galvan- 
ized iron.  This  permits  of  free  circula- 
tion of  steam  underneath  and  around 
the  cans.  The  capacity  of  a  small  retort 
is  about  150  to  250  cans  daily,  and  it  will 
generate  and  hold  about  fifteen-pound 
pressure  of  steam.  An  outfit  to  be  used 
in  canning  under  steam  pressure  should 
be  built  of  strong  material  and  have  suffi- 
cient attachments  to  determine  and  regu- 
late the  temperature.  The  results  of 
processing  under  steam  cannot  be  as- 
sured without  a  thermometer;  a  gauge 
for  reading  steam-pressure  is  a  substi- 
tute, since,  as  indicated  in  the  table 
below,  a  definite  pressure  gives  a  definite  degree  of  heat  (Fig.  65) . 
A  steam  retort  may  be  converted  into  a  hot-water  canner  by 
filling  the  canner  with  water  and  keeping  it  at  a  temperature  of 
212°  Fahrenheit.  Some  outfits  require  that  the  steam  be  piped 
into  the  retort  from  a  boiler  tank.  This  is  more  often  true  with  the 
larger  and  more  expensive  outfits  (Fig.  66).  Separate  retorts 
which  can  be  used  over  a  stove  or  out  of  doors  are  made,  and  often 
gasoline  burners  are  sold  with  them  as  a  necessary  accessory. 
Charcoal  furnaces  and  a  gas-flame  oil  stove  will  give  good  results, 
and  they  are  less  expensive  and  more  easily  handled.  Other 
canners  have  a  fire-box  built  in ;  when  used  out  of  doors  the  fire  is 
protected  and  steam  can  be  obtained  more  quickly. 


FIG.   65. — Pressure  cooker. 


PROCESSING  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURE 


91 


^^^^HH^IHMH^^HHMIM1^^^^^M^^H»^m-^MMMM»^^.MM^M*^H^  . 

FIG.   66. — Commercial  retorts  where  steam  is  piped  in  from  the  boiler.     (Heinz  Company) 

TIME-TABLE  FOR  PROCESSING  BY  STEAM 


Name  of  product 

Blanch 

Season- 
ing 

Exhaust 

Temper- 
ature, F. 

Pressure 
in 
pounds 

Time 
No.  2 
can, 
pints 

No.  2 

No.  3 

Asparagus  
Beans  
Beets  
Brussels  sprouts.  . 
Corn 

Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 

Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 

Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 

Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 

Degrees 

240 
240 

228 
228 
250 
240 
248 
248 
240 
250 
240 
228 
240 
234 
248 
228 

10 
10 
5 
5 
15 
10 
15 
10 
10 
15 
10 
5 
10 
8 
15 
5 

Minutes 

30 
45 
30 
30 
80 
55 
50 
30 
45 
70 
65 
20 
35 
65 
40 
35 

Ego'-plant 

±±os  H1C* 

Hominy  .  .  ... 

Ckra  

Peas  
Potato,  sweet  .... 
Pumpkin  
Kraut  

Spinach  
Squash  

Succotash 

Vegetable  soup  .  .  . 

Much  time,  labor,  and  fuel  can  be  saved  by  sterilizing  some  of 
the  heavy  starchy  products  under  steam  pressure  (see  table  above 
and  Fig.  66). 


92  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "  processing  at  a  high  temperature  "? 

2.  For  what  kind  of  foods  is  this  method  particularly  advantageous?     Ex- 

plain your  answer. 

3.  What  two  points  must  be  watched  constantly  while  processing  at  a  high 

temperature?     Explain  your  answer. 

4.  How  would  you  examine  a  steam  canner  to  determine  its  value? 

5.  What  part  of  the  best  canner  will  deteriorate  with  use  ? 

6.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  "  pet  cock"?     Where  is  it  located?     How 

should  this  cock  be  while  processing?    Explain  your  answer. 

7.  Describe  how  to  secure  the  pressure  desired  while  using  a  steam  canner. 

8.  When  a  definite  time  is  desired  for  the  processing,  from  what  point  in 

this  process  will  you  count  the  time? 

9.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  before  opening  the  canner  ?     Why  is 

this  necessary? 

10.  For  what  other  method  of  canning  may  a  steam  canner  be  used?     How 
can  this  be  done? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See  Chapter  VIII,  page  122. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FRUIT  JUICES 

Value. — The  many  ways  of  using  fruit  juices  make  them  a 
most  valuable  product  to  have  on  hand  throughout  the  year. 

Medicinal. — Fruit  juices  were  used  almost  exclusively  for 
medical  purposes  until  recently.  It  is  still  a  common  practice  in 
Europe  for  physicians  to  send  their  patients  to  the  vineyards  to 
drink  the  fresh  juices  as  they  come  from  the  press. 

Daily  Menu. — The  juices  of  such  fruits  as  grapes,  currants, 
cherries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  plums,  and  apples  make  whole  • 
some  and  delicious  beverages,  as  well  as  being  a  pleasant  addition 
to  the  daily  menu.  Nothing  is  more  refreshing  on  a  hot  day  than 
a  cool  fruit-juice  drink,  which  may  be  easily  prepared  from  bot- 
tled juices. 

The  dessert  may  be  varied  with  very  little  expenditure  of 
strength,  time,  and  money  by  the  use  of  different  fruit  juices. 
These  may  be  used  in  making  sherbets,  ice-cream,  puddings, 
sauces,  and  gelatine  desserts. 

Social  Functions. — The  combination  of  fruit  juices  makes  an 
attractive  fruit  punch  to  be  served  at  any  social  function. 

GENERAL  PREPARATION 

Much  depends  on  the  methods  used  in  picking,  assorting,  and 
cleaning  the  fruit  used  in  making  fruit  juices,  syrups,  and 
vinegar. 

Picking. — It  is  important  to  select  only  ripe  fruit ;  green  fruit 
gives  too  much  acidity  to  the  finished  product,  while  over-ripe  or 
spoiled  fruit  imparts  a  disagreeable  taste.  Shallow  trays  or 
baskets  are  better  adapted  for  picking,  because  they  prevent 
crushing  and  bruising  of  the  fruit. 

Assorting. — Even  after  careful  picking  it  is  well  to  sort  over 
the  fruit  on  the  trays,  selecting  only  the  sound  fruit  and  discard- 
ing the  green  and  rotted  fruit. 

93 


94  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Washing-. — The  fruit  should  be  washed  carefully  to  free  it 
from  adhering  dust  and  dirt,  which  are  always  found  in  more  or 
less  amounts  on  freshly  picked  fruits.  This  is  best  accomplished 
by  placing  the  fruit  in  a  wire  basket  or  colander  and  allowing  a 
spray  of  water  to  run  over  the  fruit.  Often  the  fruit  is  bruised 
with  the  hands  when  washing  it  in  a  deep  pail  of  water,  so  this 
method  should  not  be  used.  It  is  important  to  use  utensils  which 
will  not  be  affected  by  fruit  acids,  and  to  preserve  in  glass  storage 
containers,  in  all  fruit-juice  work. 

EXTRACTING  JUICES 

The  amount  of  work  involved  is  relatively  far  less  when  the 
juice  is  extracted  in  large  quantities  than  in  small  amounts,  be- 
cause of  the  many  labor-saving  devices  that  are  applicable  if  one 
is  handling  material  in  quantities. 


FIG.  67. — Household  fruit-juice  press. 

Cold  Process. — This  process  consists  of  crushing  and  then 
pressing  the  fruit  to  facilitate  the  overflow  of  juice.  An  ordinary 
cider  mill  may  be  used  for  handling  the  fruit  in  quantities,  but  if 
only  a  small  quantity  is  to  be  taken  care  of,  the  fruit  may  be 
crushed  with  a  potato  masher,  food  chopper,  or  fruit-juice  press 
(Fig.  67).  After  crushing,  the  fruit  is  then  pressed  in  a  cloth  by 
twisting  the  two  ends  in  opposite  directions  (Fig.  68)  until  the 
greater  part  of  the  juice  is  extracted. 

A  homemade  press  may  be  constructed  as  follows : 


FRUIT  JUICES 


95 


Figure  69  shows  a  very  efficient  lever  press  which  any  farmer 
who  is  handy  with  tools  can  make  for  himself  from  material  which 
can  be  found  on  almost  any  farm  at  any  time.  The  press  consists 
of  the  following  parts :  Two  upright  posts  (F)  are  set  deeply  and 
firmly  in  the  ground,  about  twelve  inches  apart.  It  is  well  to 
attach  cross-pieces  (ordinarily  known  as  "anchors"  or  "dead 
men")  to  the  ends  in  the  ground  to  prevent  the  posts  from  pulling 
out  too  easily.  The  lever  (E)  may  be  hung  either  between  these 
posts  by  means  of  a  bolt  (T)  or  to  the  side  of  a  building,  or  a 
hole  large  enough  to  admit  the  lever  may  be  notched  in  a  tree  and 


FIG.  68. — Cloth  press  being  twisted. 

a  lever  fastened  by  a  bolt.  At  the  other  end  are  two  posts,  between 
which  the  lever  can  be  raised  by  means  of  block  and  tackle.  The 
press  itself  consists  of  two  timbers  (Z>)  on  which  rests  the  press 
bottom  (B).  On  this  bottom  is  set  a  press  basket  (A),  consisting 
of  two  sides  and  two  ends  held  together  by  means  of  rods  (L), 
and  so  constructed  that  it  can  be  easily  taken  apart  and  put 
together  again.  The  sides  and  ends  are  bored  full  of  small  holes, 
from  three-eighths  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  through  which 
the  juice  is  pressed.  When  the  press  is  filled  with  fruit,  the  top, 
which  fits  inside  the  basket,  and  the  cross  blocks  (7)  are  put  on 


96 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


and  the  lever  caused  to  press  down  on  them.  A  large  tub  (C) 
is  placed  under  the  press  to  catch  the  juice.  The  rope  running 
through  pulley  block  (G)  fastened  to  cross-piece  (K)  is  used  to 
lift  up  the  lever  of  the  press ;  while  pressure  or  weights  on  the 
end  of  the  lever  (E)  work  the  press. 

For  ordinary  purposes  a  press  basket  three  feet  square  and 
two  feet  high,  holding  a  ton  of  crushed  grapes,  will  be  found  to 


FIG.  69. — Construction  of  a  homemade  fruit  press. 
Drawing  made  from  illustration  in  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Farming  Bulletin  No.  758. 

be  a  very  convenient  size.  It  is  perhaps  well  to  state  that  the 
longer  and  heavier  the  lever,  the  greater  the  pressure  exerted  on 
the  fruit.  "When  it  is  not  convenient  to  make  the  lever  very  long, 
weights  are  placed  or  hung  on  the  outer  extremity  in  order  to 
increase  the  pressure.  With  a  little  ingenuity  any  farmer  can 
adapt  this  press  to  suit  his  individual  requirements.  (Figs.  70 
and  71.) 

Sometimes  in  pressing  grapes  for  beverages  only  the  "free- 
run  juice"  is  desired.  This  is  the  juice  which  is  found  between 
the  skin  and  the  pulp.  Only  sufficient  pressure  to  burst  the  skin 
is  necessary  to  secure  this  ' '  free-run  juice. ' '  This  gives  a  product 
which  is  more  brilliant,  clear,  fragrant,  and  delicately  flavored 
than  the  * '  total  juice. ' ' 


FRUIT  JUICES  97 

Hot  Process. — Juices  of  small  fruits  may  be  prepared  with 
or  without  previous  heating,  but  heating  before  pressing  increases 
the  yield  of  juice,  intensifies  the  color,  and  develops  a  more  dis- 

FIG.  70. 


FIG.   70. — Fruit  press  ready  for  use. 
FIG.   71. — Fruit  press  in  use.     (Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

tinctive  flavor  than  can  be  obtained  by  simply  cold  pressing. 
There  are,  however,  a  few  exceptions.  Juices  flow  more  readily 
from  fruit  when  heated  than  when  cold.  When  the  fruit  juice  is 
to  be  used  for  jelly-making  the  hot  pressing  is  necessary,  because 
heat  is  essential  to  develop  the  pectin,  the  jelly-making  sub- 
stance found  in  fruit  juices. 
7 


98 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


If  the  berries  or  small  fruits  are  to  be  heated  before  pressing, 
about  one-half  the  quantity  should  be  crushed  with  a  wooden 
potato  masher  in  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  to  be  cooked  before  heat- 
ing. Place  the  utensil  containing  the  fruit  over  a  second  vessel 
containing  hot  water,  so  that  the  fruit  may  be  steamed  instead 
of  stewed  until  tender.  A  better  color  and  flavor  will  be  retained 
if  the  fruit  is  not  allowed  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  fire. 
The  less  juicy  fruits  require  addition  of  water  and  a  longer  heat- 
ing to  extract  the  juice. 


FIG.   72. — A  homemade  fruit-juice  filter. 

Usual  factory  methods  render  the  pomace,  or  cheese  (the  re- 
maining pulp),  almost  dry  enough  to  burn.  From  an  economical 
standpoint,  squeezing  the  pulp  is  considered  a  good  practice,  ex- 
cept where  the  free-run  juice  alone  is  desired.  When  the  juice 
is  extracted  it  may  be  filtered  by  allowing  it  to  drip  through  a 
flannel  or  felt  cloth.  Both  the  " free-run  juice"  and  "total 
juice"  should  be  carefully  strained  before  bottling.  After  the 
juice  has  dripped  through  this  filter,  allow  it  to  stand  while  the 
bottles  are  being  sterilized,  so  that  the  suspended  substances 


FRUIT  JUICES 


99 


present  will  drop  to  the  bottom  and  render  the  juice  less  turbid. 
Now  the  clear  juice  may  be  poured  off  without  disturbing  the 
sediment.  The  juice  which  has  been  strained  should  be  pro- 
tected from  the  dust.  This  can  easily  be  done  if  a  strainer  such  as 
shown  in  figure  72  is  used. 

PACKING 

Reheating  the  Juice. — Some  concentrated  juices  are  packed 
cold,  but  thin  juices  will  not  keep  unless  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  170°  to  190°  Fahrenheit.  The  temperature  should  never  be 
allowed  to  go  above  200°  Fahrenheit.  Fruit  juices  should  never 
boil,  because  boiling  injures  the  color  and  flavor.  If  a  ther- 
mometer is  not  available  to  regulate  the  temperature,  heat  the 
juice  in  a  double  boiler  and  allow  it  to  steam  or  simmer  for  five 
minutes. 


FIG.  73.— Bottling  fruit  juice. 

Bottling. — The  preparation  of  fruit  juices  for  bottling  in  the 
proper  season  requires  little  time  and  skill  (Fig.  73).  The  juice 
should  be  poured  immediately  into  hot  sterilized  bottles,  allowing 
about  one  inch  at  the  top  for  the  expansion  when  the  juice  in 
the  bottles  is  heated.  If  the  juice  is  strained  cold  into  the  bottles, 
more  space  at  the  top  should  be  allowed  for  expansion  than  when 
juice  is  packed  hot.  When  juices  are  bottled  for  beverages,  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  sugar  will  produce  a  finer  flavor. 


100  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

The  proportion  varies,  but  a  fair  allowance  is  one  cupful  of 
sugar  to  one  gallon  of  juice.  No  sugar  should  be  added  to  the 
juice  when  it  is  bottled  if  it  is  to  be  used  for  jelly-making  later. 
This  method  of  allowing  the  bottled  juice  to  stand  undisturbed 
insures  the  getting  rid  of  tartaric  acid  crystals  in  grape  jelly 
which  are  so  objectionable.  On  standing,  the  tartaric  acid  crys- 
tallizes and  the  crystals  settle.  When  the  juice  is  to  be  used  for 
jelly-making  it  should  be  poured  off  carefully,  so  as  not  to  dis- 
turb the  sediment  which  contains  these  crystals. 

Corking. — Soak  new  corks  for  one-half  hour  in  warm  soda 
water  (one  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  one  quart  of  water),  and  then 
dip  them  into  boiling  water  immediately  before  using.  The  corks 
should  be  placed  loosely  in  the  bottle  before  pasteurizing.  Some- 
times a  small  circle  of  cloth  is  tied  over  the  cork  during  pas- 
teurization to  keep  it  from  blowing  out.  This  is  better  than 
using  a  patented  device.  Neither  of  these  will  be  necessary  if 
sufficient  space  is  allowed  at  the  top  of  the  bottle  when  filling  with 
juice  and  the  water-bath  is  kept  at  the  proper  temperature. 

Pasteurizing. — The  term  "  pasteurizing "  is  used  here  in 
place  of  sterilizing  because  of  the  low  temperature  used  in  heating 
fruit  juices. 

An  ordinary  wash-boiler  makes  a  simple  homemade  pas- 
teurizer if  fitted  with  a  false  bottom.  This  false  bottom  prevents 
the  bottles  from  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel.  A  free  circulation  of  water  around  all  sides  of  the 
bottles  will  keep  them  from  breaking.  The  vessel  should  be 
filled  with  water  to  within  one  inch  of  the  top  of  the  bottles. 
Heat  the  water  slowly  and  allow  it  to  simmer  for  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes,  the  length  of  time  to  depend  upon  the  size  of 
the  containers  used  and  the  kind  of  juice  being  pasteurized. 
Testing  the  temperature  of  juice  in  the  bottles  with  a  thermometer 
gives  greater  accuracy.  If  this  test  is  used,  allow  the  corks  to 
float  on  the  water  in  the  boiler  until  the  pasteurization  point  is 
reached.  Heat  the  juice  to  140°  to  150°  Fahrenheit  and  hold 
this  temperature  for  thirty  or  forty  minutes,  cork  the  bottles, 
and  cool  to  temperature  of  70°  .to  75°  Fahrenheit  before  remov- 
ing the  containers  from  the  water-bath. 


FRUIT  JUICED 


Sealing. — Immediately  after  the  pasteurizing  the  sterilized 
corks  should  be  driven  tightly  into  the  bottles  to  seal  them 
securely.  Place  the  neck  of  the  bottle  on  the  edge  of  the  table 
and  with  a  sharp  knife  cut  the  corks  off  even  with  the  tops  of 
the  bottles  and  seal  air-tight  with  melted  paraffin  or  wax  (Fig. 
74).  After  cutting  the  cork,  turn  the  bottle  upside  down  and 
dip  one  inch  of  the  neck  into  the  melted  wax,  turning  the  bottle 
as  it  is  lifted  out  to  give  a  smooth  coating  to  the  sealing  wax. 


FIG.   74.— Making 


ng  wax. 


Homemade  Sealing  Wax. — Melt  together  equal  parts  of 
shoemaker's  wax  and  resin.  This  should  be  done  in  a  pan  over 
hot  water  to  prevent  scorching  and  to  make  it  a  pretty  amber 
color.  Dip  the  corked  bottles  into  it  after  it  has  melted. 
Various  colors  may  be  obtained  by  adding  the  following  in  given 
proportions  to  the  melted  wax.  To  each  three  pounds  of  resin 
used  add: 

For  red  color,  y2  ounce  Chinese  vermilion. 
For  black  color,  3  ounces  lampblack. 
For  green  color,  5  ounces  chrome  green. 
For  yellow  color,  5  ounces  chrome  yellow,  1  ounce  shellac. 
For  a  white  sealing  wax,  melt  together  2  pounds  white  resin,  1  ounce 
white  varnish,  1  pound  beeswax,  and  14  ounce  zinc  white. 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Capping. — If  a  screw  cap  is  to  be  placed  on  the  bottle  over 
the  cork,  the  sealing  wax  should  be  omitted  (Fig.  75).  When  a 
crown  cap  is  used  the  bottles  of  fruit  juice  are  usually  pasteurized 
open  and  the  cap  crimped  on  by  a  hand  machine  immediately 
after  the  pasteurizing  (Fig.  76). 


FIG.  75. — Screw-cap  bottle. 


FIG.  76.— A  hand  bottle  sealing  machine.  (En- 
terprise Manufacturing  Company,  Philadel- 
phia.) 


Labelling. — The  appearance  of  the  package  depends  a  great 
deal  on  the  label.  Before  labelling,  wash  and  polish  each  bottle. 
Place  the  label  midway  between  the  seams  of  the  bottle  and  one- 
fourth  inch  from  the  lower  edge.  On  each  label  should  appear 
name  of  product,  net  weight  stated  in  pounds  and  ounces,  and 
the  name  and  address  of  packer.  Fresh  clean  labels  should  be 
placed  on  commercial  bottles  just  before  they  are  packed  for 
delivery. 


FRUIT  JUICES  103 

Storing. — All  bottled  fruit  juices  should  be  stored  in  a  cool, 
dark,  dry  place.  If  left  in  a  bright  light  the  color  will  fade  and 
the  juice  will  be  less  attractive.  Unfermented  juices  properly 
made  and  bottled  will  keep  indefinitely  if  not  exposed  to  the  air 
or  to  infection  from  mold  germs.  When  a  bottle  is  once  opened 
the  contents,  like  canned  goods,  should  be  used  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  bottles  or  jars  should  be  small  enough  so  that  the  contents 
may  be  used  at  once,  and  not  allowed  to  stand  until  they  spoil. 

SPECIAL  PRODUCTS 

Cider. — Cider  making  requires  a  comparatively  inexpensive 
equipment  and  involves  only  a  small  amount  of  labor.  Cider 
is  not  considered  a  profitable  commercial  product,  because  it  is 
bulky  and  perishable.  By  following  the  methods  given  for 
bottling  other  fruit  juices,  fresh  cider  may  be  easily  kept  through 
the  year.  Usually  cider  is  sterilized  at  too  high  a  temperature, 
which  destroys  the  delicate  flavor  of  the  fresh  juice  and  renders 
it  unappetizing.  The  length  of  time  cider  may  be  kept  open 
before  it  ferments  sufficiently  to  be  considered  as  becoming 
"hard"  or  sour  varies  with  temperature  conditions  and  also  de- 
pends on  the  presence  of  fermenting  agents. 

Concentrated  Cider  or  Apple  Syrup. — The  sugar  percentage 
is  low  in  fresh  cider,  and  it  contains  so  much  water  that  the 
market  for  it  is  limited.  Methods  of  reducing  its  bulk  and  chang- 
ing it  into  an  article  which  will  keep  throughout  the  year  have 
been  devised.  Attention  has  often  been  called  to  the  fact  that 
when  ordinary  cider  freezes  part  of  the  water  separates  and 
freezes,  leaving  unfrozen  a  concentrated  cider  having  natural 
cider  flavor  and  a  reduced  water  content,  a  higher  percentage  of 
sugar  and  other  solids.  Experiments  in  boiling  down  fresh  cider 
to  secure  a  concentrated  syrup  gave  a  product  with  a  distinctly 
acid  flavor,  due  to  an  excess  of  acid  known  technically  as  malic 
or  apple  acid.  The  problem  resolved  itself  into  removing  the 
excess  of  acid,  and  this  was  finally  accomplished  by  adding  car- 
bonate or  milk  of  lime  to  the  cider,  which  precipitates  the  acid 
and,  after  settling  or  filtering  and  boiling,  yields  a  staple  and  at- 
tractive table  syrup.  This  syrup  has  a  fine  flavor  and  will  keep 


104  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

indefinitely  in  sealed  containers  like  syrup  made  from  cane  or 
sorghum.  Small  quantities  for  home  use  can  be  made  with 
ordinary  utensils. 

Method  for  Making  Apple  Syrup.— The  average  farm  house- 
wife who  is  provided  with  a  large  preserving  kettle  can  easily 
make  several  quarts  of  apple  syrup  in  her  own  kitchen.  Although 
she  may  not  find  that  she  can  sell  her  product  profitably,  she  at 
least  will  find  the  method  valuable  in  converting  the  windfalls 
of  her  own  farm  into  a  delicate  and  pleasant  syrup  for  the  use 
of  her  family.  This  product  is  a  palatable  and  valuable  food. 

Method.1 — To  make  one  gallon  of  apple  syrup,  stir  into 
seven  gallons  of  apple  cider  five  ounces  of  powdered  calcium 
carbonate  (carbonate  of  lime),  which  is  a  low-priced  chemical, 
readily  obtainable  from  a  local  drug  store  in  the  form  of  pre- 
cipitated chalk  or  powdered  marble-dust.  Heat  the  cider  and 
allow  it  to  boil  for  a  few  minutes.  As  the  cider  will  foam 
slightly,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  vessel  at  least  one-third  larger 
than  the  volume  of  cider.  Pour  the  cider,  after  boiling,  into 
vessels,  preferably  half-gallon  preserving  jars,  which  permit  the 
condition  of  the  liquid  to  be  observed.  Allow  the  liquid  to 
settle  until  perfectly  clear.  This  will  take  several  hours  or  over 
night.  After  the  liquid  is  perfectly  clear  and  shows  a  distinct 
sediment  at  the  bottom,  pour  off  the  clear  portion  into  the 
preserving  kettle,  being  careful  not  to  pour  off  any  of  the 
sediment.  Add  to  the  clear  liquid  a  level  teaspoonful  of  the 
carbonate  of  lime  and  again  stir  thoroughly.  The  process  is 
completed  by  boiling  down  the  clear  liquid.  Inasmuch  as  the 
liquid  when  boiling  down  foams  more  than  on  the  first  heating, 
the  kettle  should  be  only  one-third  full  when  boiling  commences. 
Where  a  large  kettle  is  not  obtainable,  the  liquid  will  have  to 
be  boiled  down  in  batches.  Allow  the  liquid  to  boil  rapidly.  If 
the  housewife  has  a  thermometer,  she  should  allow  the  liquid  to 
boil  until  it  reaches  220°  Fahrenheit.  Where  no  thermometer 
is  at  hand,  boil  the  liquid  until  it  reaches  about  one-seventh  of 
the  original  volume,  or  until  a  small  portion  when  cooled  rapidly 


1  From  Year  Book  Separate  639,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


FRUIT  JUICES  105 

and  poured  from  a  spoon  shows  about  the  same  consistency  as 
maple  syrup.  The  aim  is  to  make  a  thin  syrup  rather  than  one 
that  will  candy. 

When  the  syrup  has  reached  this  point,  pour  it  off  into  the 
jars  and  let  it  stand  where  it  will  cool  very  slowly.  Slow  cooling 
is  very  important  in  making  the  syrup  clear,  as  it  allows  all 
sediment  and  added  substances  to  settle  out  completely.  A  con- 
venient way  of  bringing  about  this  slow  cooling  is  to  put  the 
vessels  into  a  fireless  cooker  or  to  put  the  jars  containing  the 
syrup  in  a  wash-boiler,  surround  them  with  hot  water,  and 
allow  the  whole  to  cool.  When  the  syrup  has  cooled  to  room 
temperature  there  will  be  found  a  white  sediment,  which  is  known 
to  chemists  as  malate  of  lime,  a  harmless  compound  of  the  lime 
and  the  acid  of  the  apples.  This  is  identical  with  the  product 
known  as  maple  sand,  which  occurs  naturally  when  maple  sap 
is  boiled  down  into  syrup.  When  the  settling  has  been  com- 
pleted, carefully  pour  off  the  clear  portion  of  the  syrup  into  a 
kettle,  heat  nearly  to  boiling,  and  pour  hot  into  sterilized  jars, 
which  should  be  at  once  sealed. 

Another  method  would  be  to  transfer  the  boiling  syrup  from 
the  preserving  kettle  into  the  sterilized  bottles  and  seal  imme- 
diately. The  sediment  which  appears  at  the  bottom  in  no  way 
affects  the  syrup.  When  ready  to  serve,  simply  pour  off  the 
clear  portion,  leaving  the  sediment,  which  is  not  easily  disturbed, 
at  the  bottom.  The  syrup  might  also  be  bottled  while  cold, 
processed,  and  sealed  as  for  fruit  juices.  The  syrup  will  be  a 
clear,  ruby-colored  product,  possibly  varying  from  a  deep-ruby 
red  to  lighter  shades,  according  to  the  character  of  apples  used 
in  making  the  cider.  This  syrup  is  similar  in  consistency  to 
maple  syrup,  and  can  be  used  like  any  other  table  syrup.  If 
made  in  accordance  with  these  directions  it  will  have  a  delicate 
and  novel  flavor,  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  sugar  which 
forms  when  apples  are  baked.  It  will  be  found  that  children 
will  enjoy  it  on  bread  and  butter,  and  that  it  will  afford  a  new 
and  useful  flavoring  adjunct  or  sauce  for  puddings  or  other 
desserts, 


106  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Muscadine  Grape  Syrup. — The  process  of  making  Muscadine 
grape  syrup  is  very  simple,  and  with  proper  care  an  inexperi- 
enced operator  can  succeed.  Since  the  making  of  grape  syrup  is 
very  similar  to  the  methods  used  in  making  apple  syrup,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  outline  the  procedure  in  detail. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  having  the  highest  natural  sugar 
and  lowest  natural  acid  content  usually  make  the  most  delicious 
and  highest  quality  syrup  and  also  yield  the  most  syrup  per 
gallon  of  fresh  juice.  The  Scuppernong,  Thomas,  Luola,  Mish, 
and  other  similar  varieties  of  high  quality  make  the  best  syrups. 
The  James  makes  a  syrup  of  fair  quality,  while  the  Flowers  and 
Eden  varieties  make  syrups  which,  relatively  speaking,  would  be 
called  acid  and  rough. 

Pressing. — Cleanse  the  various  parts  of  the  press;  scald  it 
so  that  it  will  swell  and  will  not  leak.  So  soon  as  each  pressing  is 
completed  it  is  important  to  remove  all  pomace  from  the  press 
and  to  wash  with  clean  water  all  the  parts  that  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  juice.  This  will  prevent  fermentation  and 
souring  at  the  press  and  the  giving  of  foreign  flavors  to  later 
lots  of  juice. 

Crush  the  grapes  and  then  press  them  cold.  The  free-run 
or  first  juice  that  comes  from  the  press  is  more  desirable  for 
syrup  making  than  that  which  is  secured  under  pressure.  This 
is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that  the  free-run  juice  is  higher 
in  sugar  content  and  lower  in  acid  content  than  the  pressed 
juice.  When  pressure  is  applied  the  juice  flows  freely  at  first 
and  then  at  a  gradually  slower  and  slower  rate  for  many  hours. 
The  pomace  should  never  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  press  longer 
than  five  or  six  hours.  For  many  reasons  it  has  been  found 
desirable  to  press  during  the  day,  cook  the  juice  the  first  time  in 
the  late  afternoon  or  evening,  allow  it  to  stand  in  the  precipitating 
jars  over  night,  and  boil  it  down  to  a  syrup  the  next  morning. 
A  bushel  of  grapes  will  yield,  when  cold  pressed,  from  two  and 
a  quarter  to  four  gallons  of  fresh  juice,  depending  upon  the 
variety.  Most  varieties  yield  at  least  three  gallons.  On  this 
basis,  condensing  the  juice  to  one-ninth  of  its  volume,  which  has 


FRUIT  JUICES 


107 


been  found  to  give  a  syrup  of  satisfying  consistency,  one  bushel 
of  grapes,  cold  pressed,  should  yield  one  and  one-third  quarts 
of  syrup.  Heated  grapes  yield  more  juice  tihan  cold-pressed 
grapes,  but  make  a  syrup  of  inferior  quality. 

Heating. — Heat  the  juice  and  strain  it.  To  every  six  quarts 
of  fresh  Muscadine  juice  stir  in  two  ounces  of  powdered  calcium 
carbonate  (carbonate  of  lime)  to  remove  the  acids.  Boil  for 
six  or  eight  minutes  as  with  apple  syrup,  and  pour  hot  into 
sterilized  glass  jars  or  pitchers.  Allow  the  liquid  to  stand  over 
night.  Pour  off  the  clear  portion  into  a  cooking  vessel,  being 


FIG.  77. — Utensils  used  in  making  Muscadine  syrup.    (Courtesy  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture.) 

careful  not  to  pour  off  any  of  the  sediment.  Add  one-sixth 
of  a  level  teaspoonful  of  calcium  carbonate  for  each  six  quarts 
of  fresh  grape  juice  which  it  represents. 

Complete  the  process  by  boiling  down  the  clear  liquid,  being 
careful  to  keep  the  caramel  forming  on  the  inside  of  the  pan 
wiped  off  with  a  wet  cloth  so  that  scorched  caramel  will  not  fall 
into  the  syrup  and  cause  it  to  have  a  burned  flavor.  Boil  the 
liquid,  being  careful  not  to  allow  it  to  burn  when  it  is  nearly 


108  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

done.  Skim  during  the  cooking  process  and  continue  the  cooking 
as  for  apple  syrup. 

Cooling. — When  the  syrup  has  reached  the  proper  thickness, 
pour  it  off  into  the  jars,  cover,  and  place  them  in  a  hot- water 
bath  or  in  a  fireless  cooker  where  they  will  cool  very  slowly. 
Slow  cooling  is  important  in  order  to  obtain  a  clear  syrup. 

When  the  syrup  has  cooled  to  room  temperature  it  can  be 
bottled. 

Bottling. — Pour  off  the  clear  syrup,  leaving  behind  the  sedi- 
ment, which  is  not  easily  disturbed.  Bottle,  sterilize,  and  seal  at 
once  (Fig.  77). 

Fruit  Syrups. — Fruit  syrups  which  are  left  over  from  can- 
ning either  small  or  large  fruits  should  be  bottled,  pasteurized, 
sealed,  and  stored  away  to  be  used  for  flavoring  or  making 
beverages.  A  delicious  drink  is  made  by  adding  two  or  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  fruit  syrup  and  the  juice  of  one-half  lemon  to  a 
glass  of  cold  water.  They  may  also  be  used  for  flavoring  ice- 
creams, sherbets,  and  other  desserts. 

Such  fruits  as  peaches,  strawberries,  and  pineapples  give 
more  satisfactory  results  when  made  into  syrups  before  bottling. 
Sugar  helps  to  develop  the  flavor  of  these  fruits.  Sauces  for 
sundaes  and  for  flavoring  are  often  made  from  red  cherries, 
plums,  currants,  red  and  black  raspberries,  strawberries,  black- 
berries, apricots,  peaches,  rhubarb,  pineapples,  and  lemons.  A 
good  proportion  to  use  for  berries  and  small  fruits  is  two  cup- 
fuls  sugar  to  each  quart  of  juice. 

For  each  quart  grated  fresh  pineapple  allow  two  pounds  sugar  to  one 
cupful  of  water. 

For  each  pound  apricots,  fresh  fruit,  allow  one  pound  sugar  to  one  pint 
of  water. 

For  each  two  pounds  peaches,  fresh  fruit,  allow  one  pound  sugar  to 
one  cupful  of  water. 

For  each  quart  rhubarb  juice  allow  two  pounds  sugar. 

For  each  cupful  lemon  juice,  one  tablespdonful  of  grated  rind,  allow  one 
pound  of  sugar  to  one  cupful  of  water. 

General  Method  of  Preparing  Vinegar. —  Cider  vinegar  is  fre- 
quently made  in  the  country  home,  but  often  when  this  product 


FRUIT  JUICES  109 

is  put  on  the  market  it  is  found  to  fall  short  in  one  require- 
ment or  another.  The  need  of  a  careful  study  of  this  process 
is  necessary,  because  the  expense  attached  to  its  production  is 
small,  since  Nature  does  most  of  the  work,  and  can  be  utilized 
in  the  home  or  sold  as  one  of  the  by-products  to  increase  the 
income  of  the  farm. 

MAKING  CIDER  VINEGAR   AT   HOME  2 

Why  Study  Was  Needed. — The  making  of  cider  vinegar  is  a 
familiar  operation  in  almost  every  farm  home  (Fig.  78).  The 
final  product  is  a  necessity  on  every  table,  the  small  apples 
from  which  it  is  usually  made  are  of  practically  no  value  for 
other  purposes,  the  labor  and  expense  of  picking  them  up  and 
pressing  them  are  slight,  and  from  the  time  the  cider  is  in  the 
barrel  Nature  does  the  work.  Thus  the  process  appears  a  simple 
one,  easy  to  start,  and  self -operated  to  its  termination  in  a  salable 
commodity;  so  that  the  work-burdened  farmer,  with  several 
barrels  of  cider  in  his  cellar,  may,  in  his  few  moments  of  leisure, 
think  with  pleasure  of  this  farm  operation  which  will  bring  him 
profit  without  further  outlay  of  strength  or  money. 

Yet  vinegar  is  a  food  product  and,  as  such,  has  come  under 
the  eye  of  state  law,  which  says  that  to  be  legally  salable  the 
finished  goods  must  meet  certain  requirements.  Cider  vinegar 
must  contain  4.5  per  cent  of  acetic  acid  and  2  per  cent  of  cider 
vinegar  solids  before  it  can  be  lawfully  sold,  and  frequently 
farmers  who  have  made  vinegar  from  pure  apple  juice  only,  and 
who  have  stored  this  under  what  they  believe  to  be  proper  con- 
ditions for  the  proper  length  of  time,  find  that  their  product 
falls  short  in  one  requirement  or  the  other.  Thus,  without 
fraudulent  intent  or  attempt  at  adulteration  or  dilution,  the 
homemade  vinegar  falls  under  suspicion.  Complaints  of  this 
condition  reached  the  New  York  station  in  considerable  number 
some  years  ago,  and  in  an  effort  to  find  the  cause  or  causes  of  the 
difficulty  an  extensive  investigation  of  the  subject  has  been  made. 

9  These  directions  are  quoted  from  X.  Y.  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  258,  written  by  F.  H.  Hall. 


HO  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Cider  has  been  pressed  during  different  years  and  from  different 
varieties  of  apples,  and  has  been  stored  under  varied  conditions, 
with  and  without  additions  of  yeast,  "mother"  or  additional 
malic  (apple)  acid.  In  all,  thirty-six  experiments  have  been 
carried  through  periods  of  time  varying  from  forty-four  months 
to  seven  years.  Each  sample  of  cider  was  analyzed  monthly  for 
ten  months  and  at  two-month  or  three-month  intervals  after  that 
time,  attention  being  paid  to  seven  constituents  in  most  of  the 
analyses;  so  that  a  great  amount  of  data  has  been  collected,  of 
much  chemical  interest  and  practical  value. 

Simple  Yet  Complex. — As  seen  by  the  farmer,  vinegar  mak- 
ing is  a  simple  process ;  to  the  chemist,  though  less  intricate  than 
many  other  chemical  transformations,  it  is  complex ;  while  to  the 
biologist  the  various  steps  in  the  change  of  sugar  in  the  fresh 
apple  juice  to  the  acetic  acid  of  vinegar  are  manifestations  of 
very  complex  life  activities  of  many  species  of  organisms,  divided 
into  two  great  groups,  yeasts  and  bacteria,  each  group  perform- 
ing a  specific  function  in  the  change.  There  may  also  come  into 
action,  under  certain  unfavorable  conditions,  other  bacteria  which 
hinder  the  useful  transformations,  or  which  destroy  the  prod- 
ucts desired  and  thus  lower  the  quality  of  the  vinegar.  This 
interplay  of  living  organisms,  sometimes  for  good,  sometimes  for 
ill,  has  not  been  studied  in  all  its  details,  and  has  been  consid- 
ered, in  this  investigation,  only  as  results  were  produced,  the 
chemical  transformations  alone  being  considered. 

Chemistry  of  Vinegar  Making. — In  a  general  way  these 
transformations  are  two :  Sugar,  the  ordinary  cane-sugar  and 
other  forms  known  as  invert  sugars  (dextrose  and  Isevulose),  in 
the  sweet  cider,  is  first  changed  into  alcohol  through  the  fermen- 
tative action  of  one  group  cf  organisms ;  then  the  alcohol,  by  the 
action  of  a  second  group  of  organisms,  is  changed  to  acetic  acid. 

Chemically  considered,  each  molecule  of  sugar  consists  of  six 
atoms  of  carbon,  twelve  atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  six  atoms  of 
oxygen.  When  this  molecule  of  sugar  is  acted  upon  by  the  proper 
ferments,  it  passes  through  a  series  of  chemical  changes  which 
may  be  said  to  result,  finally,  in  splitting  it  up  into  two  molecules 
of  alcohol,  each  containing  two  atoms  of  carbon,  six  of  hydro- 


FRUIT  JUICES  HI 

« 

gen,  and  one  of  oxygen,  and  two  molecules  of  carbon  dioxide  gas, 
each  containing  one  atom  of  carbon  and  two  of  oxygen.  This 
may  be  expressed  in  the  form  of  an  equation : 

Sugar  Alcohol  Carbon  dioxide 

C6H12O6      =       2C2H6O      +      2CO2 

Theoretically,  we  should  be  able  to  get  from  100  parts  of 
sugar  by  weight  about  51  parts  of  alcohol  and  49  parts  of  carbon 
dioxide;  but  because  of  evaporation  and  certain  minor  chemical 
changes  we  can  get  in  practice  only  about  45  to  47  parts  of  alco- 
hol or  less. 

After  the  alcohol  is  formed,  the  organisms  which  act  upon 
it  begin  the  transformation  to  acetic  acid.  In  this  process  oxy- 
gen is  taken  from  the  air.  The  result  may  be  similarly  repre- 
sented by  an  equation : 

Alcohol  Oxygen  Acetic  acid  Water 

C6H120      +      02      =      C2H402      +      H20 

Theoretically,  again,  we  should  obtain  from  100  parts  of 
alcohol  about  130  parts  of  acetic  acid,  but  we  usually  get  less 
than  120  parts.  So,  starting  with  100  parts  of  sugar  in  the 
apple  juice,  we  may  get  under  favorable  conditions  from  50  to 
55  parts  of  acetic  acid;  therefore  to  have  vinegar  with  4.5  per 
cent  of  acetic  acid  we  must  have  juice  containing  not  less  than 
8.5  per  cent  of  sugar. 

Sugar  in  Apples. — This  percentage,  however,  is  found  in 
practically  all  ripe,  sound  apples,  although  in  a  record  of  about 
100  analyses  of  80  varieties  of  American-grown  apples,  made  at 
N.  Y.  station,  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  Vir- 
ginia, five  samples,  of  as  many  different  varieties,  were  too  low 
in  sugar  to  produce  vinegar  of  the  required  acidity.  The  sugar 
in  apples  reaches  its  maximum  in  ripe  fruit,  being  low  both  in 
those  that  are  green  and  those  that  are  over-ripe.  It  averaged,  in 
the  apples  used  in  the  tests  at  N.  Y.  station,  IS1/^  per  cent,  and 
varied  less  than  2  per  cent  either  above  or  below  the  average. 
A  somewhat  surprising  fact  to  those  not  familiar  with  the  chem- 
istry of  the  subject  is  that  "sweet"  apples  do  not  owe  their 
sweetness  to  their  large  percentage  of  sugar,  but  to  the  small 


112  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

amount  of  malic  acid  they  contain.  For  example,  the  sample  of 
Red  Astrachan  juice  contained  10.16  per  cent  of  sugar  and  1.15 
per  cent  of  malic  acid;  while  Tolman  Sweet  and  Sweet  Bough 
contain  about  the  same  amount  of  sugar,  but  only  0.10  to  0.20 
per  cent  of  malic  acid. 

Alcoholic  Fermentation. — Starting,  then,  with  juice  contain- 
ing sufficient  sugar,  what  are  the  conditions  which  will  best 
promote  the  changes  to  alcohol  and  to  vinegar  and  prevent  loss  ? 
The  sugar  must  first  be  acted  upon  by  the  enzymes,  or  ferments, 
which  are  produced  by  yeast  plants.  The  yeast  germs  are  usu- 
ally present  everywhere,  so  that  they  pass  from  the  surface  of 
the  apples  into  the  juice  as  it  is  pressed  out,  or  fall  into  the 
cider  from  the  air.  It  has  sometimes  been  held  unwise  to  wash 
apples  before  pressing  them,  for  fear  of  carrying  away  the  neces- 
sary yeast  germs ;  but  the  apples  used  in  all  the  station  tests 
were  washed  without  apparent  interference  with  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation. If  apples  have  become  dirty  it  is  certainly  best  to 
wash  them,  as  otherwise  there  is  danger  of  introducing  bacteria 
that  interfere  with  proper  fermentation.  In  ordinary  cellar 
temperature,  most  of  the  sugar  is  changed  into  alcohol  in  five  or 
six  months,  the  change  being  slow  during  the  first  month,  but 
quite  rapid  during  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  months.  The 
process  may  be  greatly  hastened  by  storing  in  rooms  warmer 
than  cellars  usually  are  during  the  fall  and  winter  months.  By 
placing  bottles  of  vinegar  in  rooms  of  different  temperature, 
running  from  55°  to  85°  Farhenheit  it  was  found  that  at  55° 
only  2!/4  per  cent  of  alcohol  was  formed  in  three  months ;  at  60° 
and  65°  Fahrenheit,  more  than  4%  per  cent;  and  at  70°  and 
85°  Fahrenheit,  about  6l/2  per  cent  was  formed  in  the  same 
time.  At  higher  temperatures  than  this,  evaporation  of  the 
alcohol  would  be  liable  to  cause  loss. 

The  addition  of  yeast  also  hastens  alcohol  formation,  so  that 
at  a  temperature  of  55°  Fahrenheit  cider  with  yeast  added  gave 
^A  Per  ceirt  °^  alcohol,  and  at  70°  Fahrenheit,  with  yeast,  7*4 
per  cent,  both  in  one  month.  The  use  of  any  form  of  commercial 
yeast,  if  sufficiently  fresh,  will  probably  be  found  to  give  good 
results. 


FRUIT  JUICES  113 

Acetic  Fermentation. — After  the  yeast  fermentation  has  been 
completed  the  acetic-acid  forming  bacteria  begin  to  attack  the 
alcohol  and  produce  acetic  acid.  This  process  is  ordinarily  very 
slow  for  about  three  months  after  the  sugar  has  all  been  changed 
to  alcohol  (that  is,  during  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  months 
of  cellar  storage),  but  advances  rapidly  from  the  tenth  to  the 
fourteenth  month  and  is  practically  completed  in  two  years. 
This  process  also  moves  more  rapidly,  when  once  well  started,  at 
higher  temperatures;  but  differences  of  temperature  appear  to 
have  little  effect  during  the  three  months  after  the  sugar  has 
disappeared.  Beginning  with  the  tenth  month  of  storage,  how- 
<-ver,  and  up  to  the  end  of  two  and  one-half  years,  nearly  twice 
as  great  a  percentage  of  acetic  acid  was  produced  where  the 
temperature  varied  from  50°  to  90°  Fahrenheit  as  where  it  was 
from  45°  to  65°  Fahrenheit.  The  percentage  of  acid  formed  at 
lower  temperatures  never  became  as  great  as  at  higher  tempera- 
tures, though  part  of  the  apparent  increase  in  the  warm  room 
was  due  to  evaporation  of  the  water.  The  best  results  were 
secured  at  temperatures  of  65°  to  70°  Fahrenheit. 

It  is  the  ordinary  practice  to  add  vinegar,  especially  vine- 
gar containing  "mother,"  to  the  barrels  in  which  vinegar  is 
making ;  and  the  investigation  proved  the  practice  a  most  excel- 
lent one,  as  the  acetic  fermentation  was  more  rapid  and  more 
complete  in  every  case  where  this  form  of  inoculation  or  "seed- 
ing" was  used.  This  addition  of  "mother"  is  comparable  to 
the  addition  of  a  "starter"  in  souring  milk,  for  the  "mother" 
is  produced  by  the  growth  of  the  acetic  bacteria  in  the  presence 
of  air  and  contains  large  numbers  of  these  bacteria. 

It  appears  to  be  of  advantage  in  some  cases  to  draw  off  the 
clear  portion  of  the  cider  after  alcoholic  fermentation  has  been 
completed,  leaving  the  dregs;  and  to  continue  the  process  in 
new,  clean  barrels  or  to  wash  out  the  settlings  and  return  the 
clear  liquid  to  the  barrels.  This  proved  of  considerable  advan- 
tage in  the  case  of  vinegars  stored  at  low  temperatures,  but  of 
less  utility  when  the  vinegar  was  stored  at  higher  temperatures 
where  the  acetic  fermentation  proceeded  rapidly.  Possibly  with 
cider  made  from  uncleaned  apples  and  carelessly  strained  juice 


114  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

the  results  along  this  line  would  be  more  striking;  for  the  liability 
to  contamination  with  undesirable  germs  would  be  greater  in 
such  cases. 

Loss  of  Acetic  Acid. — In  both  alcoholic  fermentation  and 
acetic  fermentation  the  air  should  have  free  access,  especially  in 
the  latter;  for,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  equation  given  to  explain 
the  process,  oxygen  must  be  added  to  alcohol  to  make  the  acetic 
acid,  and  this  must  come  largely  from  the  air.  On  this  account 
the  barrels  should  not  be  filled  more  than  two-thirds  or  three- 
fourths  full  with  the  apple  juice  or  with  the  "hard"  cider.  But 
when  the  acetic  fermentation  has  ceased  to  be  active  and  the 
amount  of  acetic  acid  is  safely  above  4%  per  cent  the  vinegar 
should  be  drawn  from  the  barrels  and  strained,  the  barrels 
cleansed,  the  vinegar  returned,  filling  the  barrels  full,  and  the 
bung  driven  in  tight. 

Unless  this  is  done,  destructive  fermentation  may  begin  and 
the  acetic  acid  decrease  instead  of  increasing.  In  several  experi- 
ments where  the  vinegar  was  held  in  loosely  stoppered  casks  or 
bottles  it  lost  all  or  nearly  all  its  acid,  and  in  some  cases  actually 
became  alkaline  in  reaction.  This  destructive  fermentation  may 
be  due  to  new  species  of  bacteria  introduced,  or  even  in  some 
cases  to  the  same  acetic  acid-forming  species  which,  when  the 
alcohol  is  exhausted,  attack  the  acetic  acid  itself. 

As  showing  how  complex  may  be  the  processes  passing  in 
^inegar,  the  case  may  be  cited  of  four  one-quart  bottles  of  the 
same  juice  stored  under  the  same  general  conditions.  At  the 
end  of  five  years  bottles  A  and  B  contained  5.74  and  5.44  per 
cent,  respectively,  of  acetic  acid,  bottle  C  2.10  per  cent,  and 
bottle  D  gave  an  alkaline  reaction.  Bottles  A  and  C  contained 
nearly  three  times  and  bottle  B  two  and  one-half  times  as  much 
solids  as  bottle  D. 

Malic  Acid. — The  acid  of  fresh  apple  juice  is  not  the  acid  of 
vinegar,  but  a  fixed  acid  called  malic  acid.  This  has  certain 
chemical  characteristics  which  make  it  quite  easily  recognizable ; 
and  so  its  presence  in  vinegar  has  been  considered  an  index  to 
determine  whether  the  vinegar  was  or  was  not  truly  vinegar  from 
apples.  But  these  investigations  have  proved  that  this  acid  dis- 


FRUIT  JUICES  115 

appears  quite  rapidly  from  vinegar,  so  that  in  twenty-four 
months  it  had  shrunk  from  an  average  of  0.55  per  cent  to  0.02 
per  cent;  while  in  some  older  vinegars  it  had  disappeared  en- 
tirely. The  relation  of  malic  acid  to  cider  vinegar  is  being  further 
studied. 

Legal  Standard. — The  legal  standard  of  the  state  for  acid,  4% 
per  cent  of  acetic  acid,  has  been  upheld  fully  by  these  results; 
for  apple  juice  from  good  ripe  apples,  properly  managed  in 
fermentation,  should  and  does  easily  give  4%  per  cent  of  acetic 
acid  within  two  years  at  cellar  temperatures  and  in  less  time 
at  higher  temperatures. 

Concerning  solids,  the  wisdom  of  the  standard  is  not  quite  so 
clear.  In  several  experiments  made  in  this  investigation,  vine- 
gars made  from  pure  apple  juice  and  well  above  the  limit  in  acid 
contain  less  than  two  per  cent  of  solids. 

Conditions  Producing  Poor  Vinegar. — Among  the  conditions 
which  may  produce  vinegar  below  standard  are  these :  ( 1 )  The 
juice  may  be  poor  to  start  with  because  made  from  varieties  of 
apples  low  in  sugar,  from  green  apples  or  from  over-ripe  or  de- 
cayed apples;  or  the  juice  may  be  watered  either  directly  or  by 
watering  the  pomace  and  pressing  a  second  time.  (2)  The  fer- 
mentation processes  may  be  delayed  or  disturbed  by  using  dirty 
fruit  or  unclean  barrels,  thus  affording  entrance  to  undesirable 
organisms  and  causing  the  wrong  kind  of  fermentation ;  the  tem- 
perature may  be  too  low  to  insure  the  necessary  activity  of  favor- 
able organisms;  or  air  may  be  excluded  by  filling  the  barrels 
too  full  or  putting  the  bung  in  too  tight  so  that  the  bacteria  can- 
not live  and  work.  (3)  The  acetic  acid  may  disappear  after  its 
formation,  destructive  fermentation  being  encouraged  by  leaving 
the  bung-hole  of  the  barrel  open  or  the  barrel  only  partially  full. 

To  Make  Good  Vinegar. — Briefly  summarized,  the  method  to 
be  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  good  vinegar  at  home,  with- 
out the  use  of  generators,  is  this :  Use  sound,  ripe  apples,  picked 
or  picked  up  before  they  have  become  dirty,  if  possible,  other- 
wise washed.  Observe  the  ordinary  precautions  to  secure  clean- 
liness in  grinding  and  pressing,  and  discard  all  juice  from  second 
pressings.  If  possible,  let  the  juice  stand  in  some  large  recep- 


116 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


tacle  for  a  few  days  to  settle,  then  draw  off  the  clear  portion  into 
well-cleaned  barrels  which  have  been  treated  with  steam  or  boil- 
ing water,  filling  them  only  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  full. 
Leave  the  bung  out,  but  put  in  a  loose  plug  of  cotton  to  decrease 
evaporation  and  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  dirt.  If  these  barrels 
are  stored  in  ordinary  cellars,  where  the  temperature  does  not  go 
below  50°  or  45°  Fahrenheit,  the  alcoholic  fermentation  will  be 
complete  in  about  six  months;  but  by  having  the  storage  room 
at  a  temperature  of  65°  or  70°  the  time  can  be  considerably 
shortened,  and  the  addition  of  compressed  yeast  or  its  equivalent 
at  the  rate  of  one  cake  to  five  gallons  of  juice  may  reduce  the 
time  to  three  months  or  less.  Use  a  little  water  to  thoroughly 
disintegrate  the  yeast  cake  before  adding  it  to  the  juice.  The  tem- 
perature should  not  go  above  70°  for  any  length  of  time,  to  avoid 
loss  of  the  alcohol  by  evaporation. 


FIG.  78. — Making  vinegar  on  the  farm. 

After  the  sugar  has  all  disappeared  from  the  juice  (that  is, 
when  the  cider  has  entirely  ceased  " working"  as  revealed  by 
the  absence  of  gas  bubbles),  draw  off  the  clear  portion  of  the 
cider,  rinse  out  the  barrel,  replace  the  liquid  and  add  two  to  four 
quarts  of  good  vinegar  containing  some  "mother,"  and  place  at 
a  temperature  of  65°  to  75°  Fahrenheit.  The  acetic  fermenta- 


FRUIT  JUICES  117 

tion  may  be  complete  in  three  months  or  may  take  eighteen 
months,  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  carried  on ; 
or  if  stored  in  cool  cellars  may  take  two  years  or  more.  If  the 
alcoholic  fermentation  be  carried  on  in  the  cool  cellar  and  the 
barrel  be  then  taken  to  a  warmer  place,  as  outdoors  during  the 
summer,  the  time  of  vinegar  formation  may  be  reduced  from 
that  given  above  to  fifteen  or  eighteen  months.  Where  the  alco- 
holic fermentation  is  hastened  by  warm  temperature  storage  and 
the  use  of  yeast  and  the  acetic  fermentation  favored  by  warmth 
and  a  good  vinegar  "start,"  it  is  possible  to  produce  good 
merchantable  vinegar  in  casks  in  six  or  twelve  months. 

When  the  acetic  fermentation  has  gone  far  enough  to  produce 
4.5  to  5  per  cent  of  acetic  acid,  the  barrels  should  be  made  as  full 
as  possible  and  tightly  corked  in  order  to  prevent  destructive 
changes  and  consequent  deterioration  of  the  vinegar. 

RECIPES 

Bottling  Juice  of  Grape  Fruit.3 — Bring  the  grape-fruit  juice 
to  the  boiling-point  in  a  porcelain-lined  or  enamelled  kettle,  pour 
it  while  still  ihot  into  sterilized  bottles,  and  seal  hermetically. 
The  juice  when  so  handled  will  keep  indefinitely,  and  provides  a 
base  for  * '  grapef ruitade "  or  other  acid  beverages  having  the 
characteristic  acid,  somewhat  bitter,  flavor  of  the  fruit.  Experi- 
ments show,  however,  that  it  is  highly  important  that  the  bottle 
be  completely  filled,  so  that  no  layer  of  air  will  be  left  between 
the  top  of  the  juice  and  the  cork  or  seal.  When  air  in  any  amount 
comes  in  contact  with  the  top  of  the  sterilized  juice  it  will  cause 
the  juice  to  change  its  color.  In  handling  the  juice  it  is  particu- 
larly important  that  it  be  kept  from  coming  into  contact  with 
iron  or  other  metals  easily  acted  upon  by  fruit  acids. 

The  investigators  found  also  that  it  was  possible  to  freeze  the 
grape-fruit  juice  into  solid  ice  and  then,  by  whirling  the  ice  in  a 
centrifugal  machine,  to  take  out  a  larger  part  of  the  water  and 
leave  the  solids  and  flavoring  matter  of  the  fruit.  This  freezing 
and  concentrating  of  the  juice  greatly  reduces  the  bulk  and 

3  This  recipe  was  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


118  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

makes  a  product  which  can  be  sterilized  by  heating  and  kept 
indefinitely. 

Clarifying  Juice. — Those  who  wish  to  make  a  clear  juice  may 
filter  the  grape-fruit  juice  before  it  is  heated  by  adding  to  it 
from  two  to  three  per  cent  (about  three  ounces  avoirdupois  to  the 
gallon)  of  infusorial  earth  well  washed  with  hot  water.  The 
mixture  is  then  forced  through  a  non-metallic  filter-press  and  the 
clear  juice  reheated  and  boiled.  With  the  freezing  process,  the 
juice  is  filtered  after  concentration,  about  twice  the  amount  of 
infusorial  earth  being  used  per  gallon  of  concentrate. 

The  chemists,  in  connection  with  this  bottling  of  grape-fruit 
juice,  notify  the  public  that  the  same  process  is  not  suitable  for 
bottling  the  juice  of  oranges  and  lemons,  which  will  not  retain 
their  flavor  if  handled  in  this  way. 

While  as  yet,  so  far  as  known,  there  is  no  commercial  market 
for  sterilized  grape-fruit  juice,  it  is  believed  that  many  persons 
will  find  this  juice,  with  the  addition  of  water  and  sugar,  a 
pleasant  variation  from  lemonade  or  limeade.  Those  who  like 
grape-fruit  should  find  the  beverage  inviting.  The  method  is  so 
simple  that  those  in  regions  where  grape-fruit  are  cheap  and 
plentiful  can  prepare  this  product  on  a  small  scale  with  ordi- 
nary household  appliances. 

Bottling  Grape  Juice. — Juice  compressed  from  the  various 
cultivated  grapes  can  be  bottled.  Eecipes  follow  for  leading 
Southern  and  Northern  varieties. 

Scuppernong  Grape  Juice. — After  washing  the  grapes,  crush 
while  heating  them.  Fruit  juice  will  flow  more  readily  when  the 
fruit  is  heated,  but  the  pulp  should  not  be  allowed  to  boil. 
When  the  pulp  is  thoroughly  soft,  strain  through  a  double  cheese- 
cloth and  squeeze  as  much  juice  through  it  as  possible,  then  strain 
the  juice  through  a  flannel  cloth  without  squeezing.  This  will 
give  a  clear  juice.  After  this  heat  the  juice  to  180°  Fahrenheit, 
skim  and  strain  into  sterilized  bottles,  place  the  corks  in  loosely, 
place  the  bottles  on  a  rack  in  the  water-bath,  and  pasteurize  for 
fifteen  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  180°  Fahrenheit.  Pound 
the  cork  in  tightly,  dip  the  top  of  the  bottle  into  sealing  wax,  and 
store  away  in  a  dark,  dry  place.  If  this  juice  is  to  be  used  for  a 


FRUIT  JUICES  119 

beverage  and  sugar  is  desired,  it  may  be  sweetened  to  taste  be- 
fore heating  and  pouring  into  the  bottles. 

Scuppernong  juice  packed  in  this  way  can  be  used  for  making 
jelly  later  in  the  season.  However,  the  jelly  made  from  this  juice 
will  not  be  firm  enough  unless  half  the  quantity  of  the  grapes 
used  are  green  and  the  other  half  ripe.  The  green,  grapes  will 
furnish  sufficient  pectin  to  give  it  the  proper  consistency,  and 
the  ripe  ones  will  furnish  the  color  and  flavor. 

Unfermented  Concord  or  Niagara  Grape  Juice. — To  every 
five  pounds  of  Concord  or  Niagara  grapes  use  one  pint  of  water. 
Crush  grapes,  add  water,  bring  to  boil,  and  strain  through  jelly- 
bag.  Add  one-half  cupful  of  granulated  sugar  to  every  quart 
of  juice.  Bring  just  to  a  boil  and  pour  into  sterilized  bottles, 
pasteurize,  and  seal  air-tight. 

Berry  shrub  may  be  made  of  strawberries,  raspberries,  or 
dewberries.  Select  sound  fruit,  wash,  measure,  and  place  in  a 
stone  jar.  For  every  four  quarts  of  berries  use  one  quart  of  vine- 
gar. Cover  the  jar  by  tying  a  cheesecloth  over  it.  Stir  the  berries 
daily  for  three  or  four  days.  If  the  weather  is  very  warm  do  not 
let  it  stand  over  three  days.  Strain  without  squeezing  and  put 
into  kettle,  allowing  one  pound  of  sugar  to  each  pint  of  liquid. 
Boil  slowly  for  five  minutes,  bottle,  cork,  and  seal.  Dilute  with 
cold  water  for  serving. 

WAYS  TO  USE  FRUIT  JUICES 

Grape  Cup. — To  three  pints  of  grape  juice  add  four  whole 
cloves,  one  cupful  of  sugar,  the  juice  of  four  oranges  with  one- 
half  grated  orange  rind  and  a  few  leaves  of  lemon  verbena  or 
mint.  Bring  to  boiling-point,  cool,  and  let  stand  to  ripen  for  two 
or  three  hours.  When  ready  to  use,  stir  in  the  stiffly  beaten  whites 
of  three  eggs,  a  quart  of  unf  ermented  grape  juice,  and  a  pint  of 
water,  and  serve  in  tumblers  with  ice. 

Fruit  Cup. — Two  tablespoonfuls  of  green  tea,  two  quarts  of 
boiling  water,  two  cupfuls  of  sugar,  juice  of  one  orange,  one  cup- 
ful of  currant  juice,  juice  of  two  lemons.  Pour  water  over  tea, 
let  stand  five  minutes,  then  strain  over  the  sugar ;  add  lemon  and 
orange  juices,  cool,  and  let  ripen  in  a  cool  place  for  six  hours. 


12Q  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

When  ready  to  serve,  add  the  currant  juice,  pour  over  cracked 
ice  in  deep  glasses,  garnishing  each  serving  with  a  small,  old- 
fashioned  yellow  rose  or  a  sprig  of  mint.  If  desired,  the  cracked 
ice  may  be  omitted,  the  punch  being  poured  over  raspberry  ice 
or  peach  or  pineapple  sherbet  instead. 

Fruit  Punch. — One  quart  of  raspberry  juice,  one  quart  of 
currant  juice,  three  lemons,  one  pineapple,  two  quarts  of  cold 
water,  three  oranges.  Sweeten  to  taste. 

Cherry  Punch. — Take  one  quart  of  cherry  juice  and  add  a  few 
crushed  cherries.  To  one  and  one-half  pints  of  hot  juice  and 
pulp  add  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  one  cupful  of 
water,  juice  of  one  lemon.  When  sugar  dissolves,  cool  the  mix- 
ture and  freeze.  When  half  frozen,  add  beaten  white  of  one  egg 
and  one  ounce  of  crushed  cherries. 

Grape  Punch. — Juice  of  two  lemons,  juice  of  one  orange,  one 
pint  of  grape  juice,  one  quart  of  water,  one  cupful  of  sugar,  one 
cupful  of  shredded  canned  pineapple  or  one  pint  of  cherries. 
Combine  and  let  stand  several  hours  to  ripen  before  serving. 

Orange  Ice. — The  juice  of  six  oranges  and  four  lemons,  five 
cupfuls  of  sugar,  and  the  grated  rinds  of  two  oranges.  Pour  boil- 
ing water  over  other  oranges  and  lemon  rinds.  Let  stand  fifteen 
minutes  and  strain.  Pour  the  flavored  water  over  the  other  in- 
gredients, and  add  enough  cold  water  to  make  one  gallon.  Freeze 
and  serve  in  orange  glasses  or  orange  skins. 

Strawberry  Ice. — Two  cupfuls  of  water,  three-quarters  cupful 
of  sugar.  Boil  from  five  to  ten  minutes.  Add  one  cupful  of 
strawberry  juice,  one-half  or  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice, 
one  or  two  sheets  of  gelatin.  Soak  gelatin  in  little  water.  Bring 
sugar  and  water  to  boil.  Pour  over  gelatin.  Stir  until  dissolved 
and  strain  into  strawberry  juice.  Freeze. 

Raspberry  Ice. — One  quart  of  raspberry  juice,  one  quart  of 
water,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon  juice,  three  and  one-quarter 
cupfuls  of  sugar.  Boil  sugar  and  water  for  twenty  minutes ;  cool, 
add  berry  juice  and  lemon  juice,  and  freeze  in  three  parts  ice  to 
one  part  salt.  For  a  rose-colored  ice  use  only  the  red  berries,  but 
for  a  rich  wine  color  use  part  or  all  black  raspberries. 

Raspberry  Float. — Take   one-half  cupful  of  red  raspberry 


FRUIT  JUICES  121 

juice  and  one  cupful  of  fruit.  Mix  in  gradually  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  powdered  sugar.  Beat  the  whites  of  two  eggs  until  stiff 
and  fold  into  them  the  sweetened  raspberries. 

Blackberry  Flummery. — Boil  one  quart  of  blackberry  juice. 
Kub  together  four  tablespoonfuls  of  corn-starch  and  four  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  sugar,  add  to  fruit  juice,  and  boil  for  ten  minutes. 
Strain,  cool,  and  serve  with  cream  or  custard. 

Grape  Frappe. — One  pint  of  grape  juice  and  one  pint  of 
water.  Heat  to  boiling-point  and  strain  through  cheesecloth. 
Add  juice  of  two  lemons  and  one-half  cupful  of  sugar.  Strain 
and  freeze. 

Fruit  Nectar. — One  quart  of  hot  water,  one  pint  of  grape- 
fruitade,  one  egg-white,  one-half  cupful  of  finely  chopped  mint 
leaves,  two  cupfuls  of  sugar,  four  oranges,  four  lemons.  Boil 
the  sugar  and  water  for  ten  minutes.  Cool,  add  the  fruit  juice, 
and  freeze  in  three  parts  ice  to  one  part  salt.  When  half  frozen, 
add  the  egg-white  well  beaten.  Pack  in  ice  and  salt  two  or  three 
hours  to  ripen.  When  ready  to  serve,  half  fill  tall  glasses  with 
the  ice  and  pour  over  the  grapef ruitade,  which  should  be  freshly 
opened.  Scatter  finely  chopped,  fresh,  or  candied  mint  leaves 
over  each  serving. 

Apollinaris  Tea. — Two  quarts  of  apollinaris  water,  one  gallon 
of  strong  tea,  three  dozen  lemons,  one-half  dozen  oranges  cut  in 
small  pieces  with  peelings,  one  quart  of  cherry  juice,  one  quart 
of  grape  juice ;  sweeten  to  taste.  Serve  with  crushed  ice  in  punch- 
bowl. This  makes  enough  for  one  hundred  people. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  For  what  purposes  may  bottled  fruit  juices  be  used  in  the  home? 

2.  At  what  point  should  care  begin  in  our  endeavor  to  secure  a  good  bot- 

tled fruit  juice? 

3.  Why  cannot  green  fruit  or  over-ripe  fruit  be  used  in  making  an  ex- 

cellent fruit  juice? 

4.  Why  would  bruising  the  fruit  in  packing  or  by  careless  washing  produce 

an  inferior  product? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  free-run  juioe"  of  the  grape?    What  method  is 

used  in  obtaining  it?     For  what  purpose  is  it  used?     How  does  free- 
run  juice  differ  from  the  total  juice? 

6.  What  advantage  has  the  juice  obtained  by  the  hot  process  over  that  ob- 

tained by  the  cold  process? 


122  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

7.  Why  is  the  hot  process  necessary  when  the  juice  is  to  be  used  in  jelly 

making? 

8.  How  may  the  color  and  flavor  be  retained  when  using  the  hot  process  ? 

9.  Why  should  fruit  juices  not  be  boiled?    How  may  they  be  reheated  with- 

out danger  of  boiling? 

10.  What  precautions  are  necessary  in  handling  the  filtered  juice  that  the 

product  may  be  as  clear  as  possible  ? 

11.  What  is  the  difference  between  pasteurization  and  sterilization? 

12.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  corks  blowing  out  during 

the  pasteurization? 

13.  What  fact  makes  necessary  the  false  bottom  in  all  canners  and  pas- 

teurizers ? 

14.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "  simmer  "  ?     How  can  you  tell  when  water 

is  simmering? 

15.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  cover  the  cork  and  one  inch  of  the  bottle  with 

wax? 

16.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  store  fruit  juices  in  a  dark  place? 

17.  How  will  economy  determine  the  size  of  the  bottle  prepared  for  home 

use? 

18.  Under  what  conditions  would  the  making  of  apple  syrup  be  economical 

on  the  farm? 

19.  Give  an  outline  of  the  method  for  making  grape  syrup,  including  under 

each  step  the  special  care  needed  that  the  final  product  may  reach  the 
standard  desired. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  "  Creole  Cook  Book,"  1914.  Published  by  the  Picayune,  New  Orleans.  La. 

By  mail,  $1.25. 

2.  BEARING,  CHARLES  T.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farm- 

ers' Bulletin  758,  "Muscadine  Grape  Syrup,"  1916.  Can  be  secured 
from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

3.  FARMER,  FANNIE  MERRITT,  "  Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book,"  1907. 

Published  by  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.     $1.80. 

4.  GORE,    H.    C.,   United    States    Department    of    Agriculture,    Bureau    of 

Cheminstry,  "  Studies  on  Fruit  Juices,"  Bulletin  No.  241,  June,  1915. 
Can  be  purchased  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

5.  HALL,  F.  H.,  and  VAN  SLYKE,  L.  L.,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  "  Making  Cider  Vinegar  at  Home,"  Bulletin  No.  25S,  De- 
cember, 1904.  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva, 
N.  Y. 

6.  HUSEMANN,  GEORGE  C.,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farm- 

ers' Bulletin  No.  644,  "  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape 
Juice."  April,  1915.  Can  be  secured  from  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture, Washington,  D,  C, 


FRUIT  JUICES  123 

7.  KEEN,  ADELAIDE,  "  With  a  Sauce  Pan  Over  the  Sea,"  1902.     Published 

by  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.     $1.50. 

8.  SMITH,  FRANCES  LOWE,  "  Recipes  and  Menus  for  Fifty,"   1913.     Pub- 

lished by  Whitcomb  &  Barrows,  Boston,  Mass.    $1.50. 

9.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  "  Apple 

Syrup  and  Concentrated  Cider";  "New  Products  for  Utilizing  Sur- 
plus and  Cull  Apples,"  by  H.  C.  Gore,  Yearbook  Separate  639,  from 
Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1914.  Can  be  pur- 
chased from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

10.  United  States  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Do- 

mestic Commerce,  "  Pineapple  Canning  Industry  of  the  World." 

11.  VAN   SLYKE,   L.   L.,   "  Chemistry  of   Homemade  Cider  Vinegar,"   New 

York  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  258.     Geneva,  New  York. 


CHAPTER   IX 
FRUITS  FOR  CANNING 

Apples. — Only  sound,  smooth,  medium-sized  cooking  apples 
should  be  canned.  The  late  fall  and  winter  varieties  are  usually 
slightly  acid,  and  they  retain  their  flavor  better  than  do  the  sweet 
varieties.  Apples  shrink  more  in  canning  than  most  fruits,  and 
for  this  reason  they  should  be  blanched  for  one  minute,  then 
plunged  into  a  cold  bath,  packed,  and  covered  with  a  syrup  of  10 
to  15  degrees  density  (see  p.  132). 

Process  quart  jars  ten  minutes.  Exhaust  No.  3  cans  two  min- 
utes and  process  eight  minutes  at  boiling  temperature  (212° 
Fahrenheit)  in  water-bath. 

Apple  Sauce. — Peel,  core,  and  steam  the  apples  until  soft,  run 
through  colander,  return  to  the  fire  and  heat  thoroughly,  pack 
hot  into  cans  or  jars,  and  seal  at  once.  Process  ten  minutes  at 
212°  Fahrenheit  in  a  hot-water  bath. 

Berries. — For  dewberries,  blackberries,  raspberries,  and 
Logan  berries,  practically  the  same  methods  of  canning  may  be 
used.  The  condition  of  the  fruit  will  have  much  to  do  with  the 
quality  of  the  product.  The  berries  should  be  gathered  in  shal- 
low trays  or  baskets  and  not  in  deep  vessels  which  allow  them  to 
be  bruised  and  crushed.  They  should  be  uniformly  ripe,  sound, 
and  as  large  as  possible.  It  is  necessary  to  can  all  varieties  of 
berries  in  glass  or  else  to  put  them  in  enamel-lined  cans,  be- 
cause if  canned  in  ordinary  tin  cans  the  berries  will  lose  both 
color  and  flavor  very  quickly,  and  be  unfit  for  use  or  for  sale. 

The  flavor  of  canned  berries  will  be  finer  if  sugar  is  used  in 
canning.  It  is  best  to  make  this  into  a  syrup.  The  use  of  berry 
juice  instead  of  water  in  this  syrup  will  give  a  richer  color  and 
flavor.  For  fine  berries,  use  a  syrup  of  30  degrees  density  (about 
three  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar  to  one  gallon  of  berry  juice  or 
water). 

After  the  berries  have  been  carefully  sorted  and  lightly  washed 
124 


FRUITS  FOR  CANNING  125 

by  placing  in  colander  and  pouring  water  over  them  (instead 
of  putting  into  a  pan  of  water) ,  pack  as  closely  as  possible  with- 
out crushing.  This  can  be  done  better  by  putting  a  few  berries  in 
the  jar  or  can,  pressing  them  gently  into  place,  and  proceeding 
layer  by  layer,  than  by  nearly  filling  the  jar  loosely  and  then  try- 
ing to  press  them  down. 

Fill  jars  full  of  fruit  and  cover  with  cooled  syrup.  Fit  the 
rubber  in  place  and  fasten  the  lid  loosely  on  glass  jar  and  then 
process  pints  for  six  minutes  and  quarts  for  twelve  minutes, 
counting  the  time  after  boiling  begins.  When  packing  in  tin 
cans,  fill  them  to  within  one-quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  top,  cover 
with  syrup.  Dry  the  groove  around  the  opening  with  a  clean 
cloth  and  cap.  Exhaust  in  tin  for  three  minutes  and  process  No. 
2  cans  for  eight  minutes  and  No.  3 'cans  for  ten  minutes.  No. 
10 's  should  be  exhausted  four  minutes  and  processed  for  thirty 
minutes. 

Cherries. — Cherries  keep  their  flavor  and  color  with  difficulty 
in  tin,  even  in  enamel-lined  cans.  For  this  reason  glass  is  prefer- 
able. The  large  black  and  sweet  white  cherries  are  usually  packed 
impitted,  while  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  acid  cherries.  The  un- 
pitted  cherries  present  a  better  appearance,  and  many  people 
like  the  distinctive  flavor  which  the  retained  pit  gives  to  the 
product.  When  cherries  are  canned  whole  they  should  be 
blanched  in  hot  water  at  about  180°  Fahrenheit  for  twenty  or 
thirty  seconds.  This  will  slightly  soften  the  fruit  and  prevent 
splitting.  Then  drop  cherries  into  a  cool  syrup  and  they  will 
plump  considerably  before  packing  cold  into  jars.  For  sour 
cherries  use  a  syrup  of  40  degrees  density,  and  for  sweet  ones 
use  a  30-degree  syrup  (see  Syrup  table,  p.  132).  Process 
quart  jars  for  twenty-five  minutes ;  exhaust  No.  2  cans  for  two 
minutes  and  process  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  water-bath  at  boil- 
ing temperature  (212°  Fahrenheit).  Both  the  exhausting  and 
processing  of  cherries  in  quart  jars  are  accomplished  at  the  same 
time. 

Figs. — Figs  for  canning  should  be  sound  and  firm  (Fig.  79). 
Treat  them  with  a  soda  bath  as  for  preserving.  Rinse  through 
two  cold-water  baths,  drain  and  cook  for  forty  to  sixty  minutes  in 


126  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

the  syrup  (two  cupfuls  of  sugar,  four  cupfuls  of  water).  Cool, 
pack,  and  cover  with  the  syrup  and  process  for  thirty  minutes 
in  quart  jars.  When  canning  in  tin  the  figs  retain  a  better 
color  and  flavor  when  canned  in  enamel-lined  cans. 

Gooseberries. — Because  of  extreme  acidity  green  gooseberries 
can  be  safely  c'anned  without  processing.  The  berries  are  picked 
when  nearly  full  grown,  but  green.  Stem,  wash,  pack  into  jars, 
cover  with  fresh  cold  water,  and  allow  the  jars  to  stand  for  ten 
minutes.  Drain  off  the  water  and  again  fill  to  overflowing  with 
fresh  cold  water  and  seal,  using  sterilized  rubbers  and  lids. 
Gooseberries  canned  in  this  way  are  used  for  pies. 

Rhubarb  may  be  canned  in  the  same  manner  as  gooseberries. 

Peaches. — Sort  the  fruit,  using  firm,  sound,  uniform  peaches 
for  canning,  and  putting  aside  the  soft,  broken  ones  for  jam.  A 
few  very  large  peaches  are  sometimes  canned  whole  in  a  heavy 
syrup  and  are  called  Melba  peaches. 

Firm,  perfect  peaches  may  be  lye  peeled,  but  if  very  ripe  the 
fruit  is  made  too  soft  by  this  process.  The  lye  method  of  peeling 
is  superseding  the  former  methods  of  peeling  by  hand  or  by 
boiling  water.  The  objections  to  this  method  were  no  doubt  due  in 
some  measure  to  improper  usage.  Have  ready  a  boiling  lye  solu- 
tion (four  tablespoonfuls  of  concentrated  lye  to  one  gallon  of 
water).  Drop  the  peaches  into  this  for  about  twenty  to  thirty 
seconds,  lift  them  out,  and  drop  into  clear  boiling  water  for  a 
like  period.  After  this- place  them  into  a  cold  bath,  when  the  skins 
will  come  off  easily.  Cut  them  into  halves,  remove  the  seeds, 
and  immerse  fruit  in  a  hot  syrup  testing  about  30  to  40  degrees 
with  a  "Brix"  spindle.  The  percentage  of  solids  in  a  liquid  is 
indicated  by  the  reading  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  when  the 
Brix  hydrometer  is  floated  in  it  (pp.  131  and  132).  Allow  them 
to  stand  in  this  syrup  until  thoroughly  cold,  then  pack,  placing 
the  halves  in  overlapping  layers,  the  concave  surface  of  each  half 
being  downward  and  the  blossom  end  facing  the  glass.  Fill  each 


NOTE. — If  the  peaches  are  not  firm,  they  may  be  peeled  by  lowering 
them  in  a  wire  basket  or  cheesecloth  into  boiling  water  until  the  skins  slip 
easily  (about  one  minute) ,  remove,  plunge  for  a  minute  into  cold  water,  and 
slip  off  the  skins  (Plate  I). 


FRUITS   FOR  CANNING 


127 


FIG.  79. — Fig  packs. 


MEte^jpi 

FIG.  80. — Attractive  packs  of  canned  fruits:     a.  Berries,    b.  Pears,     c.  Fruit  salad. 


128 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


jar  or  can  with  strained  syrup  and  paddle  care- 
fully to  remove  air  bubbles.  Exhaust  No.  3  cans 
three  minutes,  process  for  fifteen  minutes.  In 
glass,  process  quart  jars  for  twenty  minutes  and 
half  gallons  for  thirty-five  minutes. 

Pears. — Select  pears  ripe,  but  not  soft.  Some- 
times whole  Seckel  pears  are  canned,  but  the 
Bartlett  pear  is  preferred  to  other  varieties  for 
canning,  due  to  its  texture  and  flavor.  Pare, 
blanch,  put  into  a  cold  soda  bath  (one  teaspoonful 
of  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water),  drain  and  pack 
rapidly.  When  packed  whole,  leave  stems  on  and 
place  each  layer  stems  up,  letting  the  second  row 
fill  the  spaces  between  the  two  stems,  and  repeat. 
If  the  pears  are  to  be  cut  they  should  be  pared, 
evenly  divided  into  halves,  and  cored.  The  fruit 
must  be  kept  submerged  in  water  after  being 
pared  or  it  will  discolor  quickly.  Eight  or  ten 
large,  perfect  pieces,  covered  with  syrup,  will  give 
a  good  pack.  Pack  pears,  cover  with  a  syrup 
of  20  to  30  degrees  density,  and  process  quarts  for 
thirty  minutes ;  exhaust  No.  3  cans  three  minutes 
and  process  for  twenty-five  minutes  at  212° 
Fahrenheit  in  a  water-bath. 

Plums. — The  green-gage,  yellow  egg,  and  Lom- 
bard are  the  varieties  of  plums  used  for  can- 
ning. Only  sound,  uniform  fruit  should  be 
selected;  stem,  wash,  grade,  prick  with  needle  to 
prevent  bursting,  pack  as  firmly  as  possible  with- 
out crushing,  cover  with  a  syrup  of  40  degrees 
density,  and  process  quarts  for  fifteen  minutes; 
exhaust  No.  2  cans  two  minutes  and  process  ten 
minutes,  counting  the  time  after  the  water-bath 
begins  boiling.  Enamel-lined  cans  are  necessary 
when  packing  plums  in  tin. 

Olives. — The  canned  ripe  olive  has  been  used 
FlG-8i-— Availing  in  this  country  almost  exclusivelv  as  a  condiment, 

hydrometer.  * 


FRUITS  FOR  CANNING 


129 


owing  partly  to  price  and  partly  to  the  irregularity  of  the 
product.  It  has  unusually  high  nutritive  value  and  a  peculiar 
pleasing  taste,  two  elements  which  commend  it  as  a  food,  provided 
the  consumer  can  depend  upon  getting  these  qualities.  The  meth- 
ods of  packing  are  in  a  more  or  less 
experimental  stage,  and  improve- 
ment is  constantly  being  made. 

The  Mission  olive  is  preferred 
for  canning,  owing  to  the  superior 
flavor  and  better  texture.  A  recipe 
for  handling  olives  is  quoted  under 
the  chapter  on  " Pickling,"  p.  217. 

Fruit  Macedoine. — A  combina- 
tion of  fruits  makes  an  attractive 
pack  in  a  30-  to  40-degree  syrup, 
and  it  is  a  convenient  product  to 
have  on  hand,  since  it  is  ready  to 
serve  either  as  a  fruit  cocktail, 
salad,  or  dessert.  Some  of  these 
combinations  may  be  more  easily 
obtained  in  one  section  of  the 
country  than  another.  Any  light- 
colored  fruits  will  make  a  pleasant 
mixture : 

(a}  Green-gage  plums,  pears, 
and  gooseberries. 

(6)   Pineapples,  kumquats,  figs. 

(c)   Peaches, pears, and  cherries.  i: 

Very  often  fruits  such  as  berries  are  not  included  in  these  com- 
binations, because  they  would  discolor  fruits  of  lighter  color  and 
would  have  the  tendency  to  lose  their  form  (Fig.  80). 

Golden  dressing  is  a  pleasing  addition  to  this  mixture  when 
served  in  any  of  the  above-mentioned  ways. 

Special  Hydrometers. — In  order  to  proceed  with  certainty, 
instruments  called  hydrometers  have  been  devised  for  accurately 
measuring  the  density  of  liquids.  The  one  used  for  the  special 
purpose  of  measuring  the  density  of  sugar  solutions  is  known  as 
a  saccharometer.  There  are  three  different  kinds  of  sugar  hy- 
9 


130 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FRUITS  FOR  CANNING 


131 


drometers  used ;  namely,  Balling,  Brix,  and  Baume.  The  readings 
are  the  same  on  the  Balling  and  Brix  instruments.  Both  indi- 
cate the  percentage  of  sugar  present  in  a  solution  of  water.  If 
the  Baume  is  used,  a  table  showing  the  percentage  of  sugar  corre- 
sponding to  the  degrees  Brix  is  necessary  for  these  recipes.  This 
hydrometer  is  not  suitable  for  use  in  preserving,  since  the  read- 
ings should  be  converted  into  terms  of  either  Brix  or  Balling. 
The  Brix  instruments  may  be  secured  with  a  range  of  zero  to  30 
degrees  or  30  to  60  degrees  graduated  in  tenths  of  a  degree,  and 
the  Balling  with  a  range  of  zero  to  70  degrees  graduated  in 
halves  of  degrees  (Fig.  81).  This  latter  instrument  is  the  one 
shown  in  the  illustration.  Its  range  prevents  the  necessity  of 


FIG.  84. — Cleansing  rubber  rings. 

buying  two  spindles,  and  it  is  accurate  enough  for  ordinary  use 
in  canning  and  preserving.  For  testing  fruit  juices  in  jelly 
making,  an  instrument  with  scale  ranging  from  zero  to  30  de- 
grees and  graduated  in  tenths  of  degrees  is  used.  The  Balling 
scale  shown  in  the  illustration  is  inexpensive. 

Using  the  Instruments. — When  placed  in  sufficient  water  to 
cover  it,  the  spindle  floats  and  the  reading  at  the  surface  will  be 
zero.  If  put  in  a  heavier  liquid  than  water,  it  will  float,  but  at  a 
different  level.  By  adding  solids,  in  the  form  of  sugar,  to  water, 
the  density  increases  and  the  spindle  rises.  In  using  a  sac- 
charometer  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  vessel  of  sufficient  depth  in 
which  to  float  it  to  make  the  readings.  This  should  be  very  nar- 
row so  as  not  to  require  a  large  quantity  of  syrup  to  measure  its 


132 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


density.  A  250-cubic  centimetre  glass  cylinder  or  a  brass  sac- 
charometer  cup  is  used  (Fig.  82). 

Sometimes  a  tall,  slender  olive  bottle  will  serve  this  purpose. 
The  instruments  are  fragile  and  only  accurate  when  used  for 
testing  syrups  at  the  temperature  indicated  on  the  spindle.  These 
instruments  will  lose  their  accuracy  if  too  frequently  dipped  into 
very  hot  solutions.  The  spindles  may  be  secured  mercury 
weighted  or  weighted  with  shot. 

Amount  of  sugar  used  for  syrup  of  different  degrees,  using  a 
gallon  of  water  as  a  basis  to  which  the  sugar  is  added : 

SUGAR  SYRUP  TABLE. 


Density,                 Quantity  of  sugar 

degrees, 
Brix  or 

Water 

1 

Balling              Pounds 

Ounces 

5 

7 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

10 

14.8 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

15                   1 

7.5 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

20 

1 

14.75 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

25 

o 

12.5 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

30 

3 

9 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

35 

4 

7  .75 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

40 

5 

8.75 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

45 

C 

13 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

50 

8 

5.25 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

55                 10 

4 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

60                 12 

8 

Per  1  gallon  water. 

If  a  hydrometer  is  not  available,  see  note  under  Syrup  table,  page  85. 

hydrometer. 


Working  without 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  glass   or  enamel-lined  cans  necessary  for  canning  berries? 

2.  Describe  how  to  pack  berries  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained. 

3.  Of  what  should  the  syrup  be  made  which  is  to  be  used  in  the  canning  of 

berries? 

4.  Why  may  green  gooseberries  be  safely  canned  without  processing? 

5.  Describe  in  detail  the  "  lye  method  "  of  peeling  peaches.     What  are  the 

advantages  in  using  this  method?     When  is  it  unwise  to  use  it? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


See  Chapter  X,  page  147 


CHAPTER   X 

VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING 

Brine  used  for  packing  most  of  the  vegetables  is  made  of 
two  and  one-half  ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water,  except  for 
asparagus,  for  which  a  heavier  brine  is  used  which  contains  four 
ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water. 

Seasoning. — A  seasoning  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part 
of  salt  and  two  parts  of  sugar  is  used  in  some  canned  vegetables. 
Two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  this  mixture  should  be  added  to  each 
quart  jar  or  No.  3  can  of  tomatoes,  and  one  teaspoonful  added 
to  each  No.  2  can.  This  mixture  is  also  used  for  peas,  lima  beans, 
and  corn.  The  flavor  of  these  products  is  much  superior  to  those 
canned  without  sugar  and  salt  seasoning. 

Asparagus. — Select  only  young,  tender  asparagus  for  can- 
ning. It  should  be  packed  immediately  to  preserve  it  at  its  best. 
The  stalks  should  be  graded  as  to  size  and  washed  carefully  to 
prevent  any  staining  from  the  soil.  The  stalks  are  tied  into 
bundles  and  blanched  from  three  to  four  minutes.  On  account 
of  the  tips  being  more  tender  than  the  stalks,  place  the  lower 
ends  in  the  blanch  first,  allow  them  to  stand  for  two  or  three 
minutes,  and  then  emerge  the  entire  bundle  for  one  or  two 
minutes  longer,  then  plunge  into  cold  water.  The  asparagus  is 
again  carefully  graded  into  white  and,  green  lots  and  packed 
carefully,  having  the  tips  up.  Fill  the  cans  or  jars  with  brine 
(four  ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water)  and  process  inter- 
mittently for  one  hour  on  each  of  three  successive  days  in  a  hot- 
water  bath;  or  in  a  steam  canner  for  thirty  minutes  at  a 
temperature  of  240°  Fahrenheit,  under  ten-pound  steam  pressure. 
Asparagus  which  has  been  allowed  to  stand  over  night  has  lost 
much  in  color  and  flavor ;  it  should  be  canned  immediately  after 
cutting. 

Artichokes. — A  very  small  amount  of  this  vegetable  is  packed 
in  this  country.  The  domestic  artichokes  have  a  thicker  ' '  biscuit ' ' 
on  the  base  of  the  leaves  than  the  imported. 

133 


134  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Select  burr  heads  uniform  in  size,  remove  the  larger  outer 
leaves  and  tie  the  others  together,  then  blanch  for  five  minutes, 
pack  into  jars  and  cover  with  brine  (two  and  one-half  ounces  of 
salt  to  one  gallon  of  water).  Process  pint  jars  and  No.  2  cans 
in  boiling-water  bath  for  one  hour.  Sometimes  just  the  hearts,  or 
' '  biscuits ' '  as  they  are  often  called,  are  packed.  The  base  of  the 
flower  should  be  one  to  one  and  onerhalf  inches  in  diameter  and 
half  an  inch  thick  when  the  leaves  are  removed.  The  vegetable 
is  blanched  and  dipped  into  a  cold  bath  before  being  trimmed. 
They  are  then  packed  into  the  jars  and  covered  with  brine  and 
processed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  whole  heads. 

This  vegetable  is  considered  a  delicacy.  It  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively in  the  hotel  trade.  One  difficulty  in  packing  this  vege- 
table is  that  it  turns  dark  while  packing  and  becomes  unattrac- 
tive in  appearance,  though  the  flavor  may  be  unchanged. 

String  Beans. — The  green  " Refugee"  and  "Stringless  Green 
Pod"  are  good  varieties  for  canning.  Beans  should  be  picked 
while  still  young  and  tender  and  should  be  canned  very  fresh. 
When  the  beans  within  the  pods  have  grown  to  any  size  canning 
is  more  difficult  and  the  finished  product  is  poor.  The  beans 
should  be  graded  according  to  thickness,  and  only  small,  tender 
beans  should  be  used  for  canning.  String  the  beans  and  cut 
them  into  two-inch  lengths ;  cutting  diagonally,  or  "  on  the  bias, ' ' 
gives  an  attractive  product.  Blanch  for  three  to  five  minutes  in 
a  soda  bath  (one  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water), 
plunge  into  a  cold  salt  bath  (one  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  one  quart 
of  water)  for  twenty  to  thirty  seconds.  This  treatment  will  assist 
in  preserving  the  green  color,  and  the  finished  product  will  be 
more  attractive.  Drain  well  and  pack  quickly.  The  beans  may 
be  packed  in  log-cabin  fashion  in  square  jars.  If  the  beans 
are  to  be  packed  whole,  they  should  be  cut  into  even  lengths, 
packed  in  the  jars,  covered  with  brine  (two  and  one-half  ounces 
of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water) ,  and  processed  in  the  hot-water  bath 
intermittently;  or  they  may  be  treated  in  a  steam  canner  for 
forty-five  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  240°  Fahrenheit,  under 
ten  pounds  steam  pressure,  which  will.be  sufficient  to  sterilize 
beans  in  quart  jars  and  No.  2  cans. 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  135 

Wax  Beans. — The  wax  beans  are  handled  in  the  same  way  as 
the  string  beans.  Sometimes  the  seasoning  of  sugar  and  salt  is 
added  to  this  product  when  packing.  Exhaust  No.  2  cans  three 
minutes  and  process  intermittently. 

Lima  Beans. — There  are  two  varieties  of  lima  beans — the 
vine  or  pole  variety  and  the  bush  variety.  The  first  named  is 
used  for  drying  and  the  last  for  canning  green.  This  vegetable 
should  be  gathered  when  the  beans  are  in  prime  condition  and 
sorted  carefully.  The  very  large  beans,  that  look  starchy  and 
have  the  appearance  of  soaked  beans,  are  often  canned  for  succo- 
tash in  the  section  of  the  country  wThere  corn  and  beans  mature 
at  the  same  time.  After  blanching  the  beans,  fill  the  cans,  add 
brine  (two  and  one-half  ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water), 
exhaust  and  process  in  the  same  manner  as  for  string  beans. 

Baby  Beets. — Beets  used  for  canning  should  be  of  uniform 
deep-red  color  throughout.  The  best  variety  of  beets  for  canning 
is  the  "Detroit."  From  a  standpoint  of  quality,  only  young, 
tender  beets  should  be  canned.  Sort,  putting  uniform  sizes  to- 
gether, steam  for  about  twenty  minutes,  or  boil  until  three- 
fourths  cooked,  to  loosen  the  skins.  Do  not  allow  cold  water  to 
touch  the  beets  after  they  have  been  cooked,  as  it  sometimes 
causes  them  to  lose  color.  Peel  and  pack  whole  those  beets  which 
average  one  inch  in  diameter;  those  above  two  inches  are  cut 
into  slices.  Cover  the  beets  in  the  cans  with  clear,  hot  water. 
The  flavor  of  the  finished  product  is  better  if  no  seasoning  is 
added  during  the  canning.  Process  quart  jars  one  to  two  hours, 
exhaust  No.  2  cans  for  three  minutes  and  process  same  as  for 
quarts,  or  in  a  steam  canner  for  30  minutes  at  a  temperature 
of  228°  Fahrenheit. 

Beets  should  never  be  packed  in  tin  unless  the  cans  are  enamel 
lined.  About  thirty  baby  beets  to  each  No.  2  can  is  considered  a 
good  pack ;  by  weight  sixteen  ounces  of  beets  and  four  ounces  of 
liquor  give  a  standard  pack  (Fig.  85). 

Carrots. — Carrots  used  for  canning  should  be  young  and 
tender  and  not  more  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter. 
They  are  washed,  scraped  carefully,  steamed  or  boiled  until  three- 


136 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  137 

fourths  cooked,  and  cut  into  lengths  of  the  can,  sliced  or  diced. 
Fill  the  jars  or  cans  and  cover  with  brine  (two  and  one-half 
ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water)  and  process  for  one  hour. 

An  attractive  pack  of  carrots  in  glass  may  be  made  by  plac- 
ing the  circles  in  layers,  fitting  the  second  layer  into  the  space 
left  by  the  first  layer  and  repeating  until  the  jar  is  filled.  The 
center  should  be  filled  in  as  each  outside  layer  is  placed  against 
the  glass. 

Corn. — In  the  canning  of  corn  much  depends  upon  the  careful 
selection  of  tender,  juicy  corn  before  it  reaches  the  starchy  stage. 
If  allowed  to  grow  beyond  the  point  of  greatest  succulence  it  be- 
comes tough  and  dry.  The  sweet  white  variety  is  preferable  for 
canning.  The  Western  yellow  corn  is  less  succulent.  Corn  grows 
stale  very  quickly  and  loses  its  flavor,  therefore  it  should  never  be 
allowed  to  stand  longer  than  a  few  minutes  after  being  snapped 
from  the  stalks  before  canning.  Blanch  on  the  cobs  from  one  to 
three  minutes.  There  are  different  procedures  followed  in  cutting 
the  kernels  from  the  cob;  the  kernels  may  be  cut  very  close  to 
the  cob  and  no  scraping  done ;  this  will  give  a  canned  corn  with 
nearly  whole  separate  kernels  in  the  brine.  By  another  method 
the  cutting  may  be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  the  outer  end  of 
the  grain  is  cut  off  first,  and  then  the  lower  part  of  the  kernel 
is  removed  by  a  second  cutting;  this  cutting  will  give  a  creamy 
consistency  to  the  finished  product.  Another  style  of  cutting  the 
corn  from  the  cob  is  to  slit  the  end  of  the  kernels  and  squeeze 
out  the  contents ;  this  will  give  a  hull-less  product  similar  to  the 
commercial  "Kornlet."  After  removing  the  corn  from  the  cob 
it  may  be  packed  into  the  jars  or  cans  cold  to  within  one  inch  of 
the  top ;  add  one  and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of  the  salt-and-sugar 
mixture  to  each  jar  or  can  and  cover  with  clear  water;  paddle 
to  allow  the  liquid  to  permeate  to  the  bottom  of  the  containers. 
Exhaust  No.  2  tin  cans  for  ten  minutes,  process  intermittently, 
cooling  immediately  after  each  processing  by  plunging  the  cans 
into  cold  water.  If  canning  in  glass,  process  quart  jars  inter- 
mittently, raising  the  clamp  during  each  processing;  for  corn 
expands  in  cooking  and  the  jars  may  be  broken  unless  the  lids  are 
loosened  during  each  processing. 


138  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

A  product  of  more  uniform  consistency  can  be  obtained  by 
heating  the  corn  with  the  seasoning  (sugar,  salt,  and  a  little 
water)  before  packing  it  into  the  cans.  This  will  cause  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  kernels  before  packing,  and  the  result  will  be  a 
fuller  pack  and  shorten  the  time  of  the  exhaust  to  five  minutes 
instead  of  ten  minutes,  if  the  corn  is  packed  hot  into  hot  cans. 
It  may  seem  that  the  heating  of  the  pulp  complicates  or  lengthens 
the  process,  but  the  time  saved  in  exhausting  and  the  condition 
of  the  finished  product  make  it  worth  while. 

Take  every  precaution  to  have  good  rubbers,  arid  keep  the 
process  at  boiling-point  for  the  entire  time.  The  steps  in  the  can- 
ning of  corn  should  follow  in  rapid  succession,  allowing  one  hour 
from  the  time  the  corn  is  gathered  until  it  is  sealed  in  the  can 
ready  for  the  process.  If  processed  or  sterilized  in  a  steam  retort, 
eighty  minutes  under  a  fifteen-pound  pressure  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  heavy  corn ;  or,  if  a  water-bath  is  used,  canned  corn 
should  be  processed  intermittently  for  one  hour  on  each  of  three 
successive  days. 

Lye  Hominy. — Use  the  sweet  flat  corn.  Most  early  varieties 
of  sweet  corn,  of  which  "Stowell's  Evergreen"  is  an  example, 
have  the  flat  kernels.  To  obtain  best  results  in  preparing  lye 
hominy,  dissolve  two  ounces  of  concentrated  lye  in  one  gallon  of 
boiling  water ;  drop  the  corn  into  this  solution  and  boil  rapidly  for 
twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes.  Drain  and  drop  into  cold  water.  If 
possible,  allow  cold  water  to  run  over  it  for  three  or  four  hours 
to  remove  all  traces  of  the  lye.  After  this,  place  in  a  barrel  churn 
and  turn  the  churn  for  five  to  ten  minutes  to  remove  the  hulls 
and  black  eyes.  After  removing  the  hulls,  place  the  corn  in  an 
enamelled  kettle,  cover  with  clear  boiling  water,  and  cook  until 
tender.  Wash  again  and  remove  any  hulls  or  eyes  which  you 
failed  to  take  off  in  the  churn.  Enamel-lined  cans  or  glass  should 
be  used  for  packing  hominy.  Fill  the  cans  to  within  one-half 
inch  of  the  top  and  cover  with  brine  (two  and  one-half  ounces 
of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water).  Cap  and  exhaust  for  ten  min- 
utes. Process  in  No.  2  cans  intermittently  in  a  hot-water  bath, 
or  in  a  steam  canner  for  fifty  minutes  under  a  fifteen-pound 
steam  pressure.  This  product  is  more  easily  sterilized  in  No.  2 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  139 

cans.  It  is  very  important  that  all  trace  of  the  lye  be  removed 
before  packing  the  hominy  into  the  cans. 

Okra. — Select  young,  tender  pods,  removing  the  stem  end 
without  cutting  into  the  seed  sections,  blanch  in  the  soda  bath  (as 
for  beans),  plunge  into  the  cold  salt  bath,  drain,  pack  into  jars, 
cover  with  brine,  and  process  the  same  as  for  beans.  This 
product  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  Southern  cookery  and  is  not 
generally  known  in  the  North.  If  the  okra  is  to  be  packed  for 
soups,  it  may  be  sliced  after  blanching,  as  it  is  hard  to  cut  after 
canning.  If  a  steam  canner  is  used,  process  for  thirty  minutes 
under  a  ten-pound  steam  pressure  (Fig.  85). 

Peas. — Peas  are  more  difficult  to  can  than  most  other  vege- 
tables, and  special  care  should  be  taken  in  handling  them.  Use 
only  fresh,  young  peas.  They  should  be  gathered  in  the  early 
morning  and  canned  as  soon  as  possible.  Work  should  be  done 
rapidty,  and  the  peas  should  not  stand  after  being  shelled.  Shell 
and  sort,  putting  peas  of  the  same  size  and  grade  of  maturity  to- 
gether. Be  sure  not  to  use  hard,  ripe  peas  among  the  tender 
ones.  The  peas  are  blanched  according  to  their  age  and  size  until 
well  done;  this  prevents  a  cloudy  liquor  and  makes  the  peas 
tender,  also  removing  some  of  the  gluey  substance  which  some- 
times coats  the  peas.  The  very  young,  tender  peas  need  scarcely 
more  than  one  to  two  minutes'  blanch,  while  the  very  old  ones 
may  need  twenty  minutes'.  The  time  should  be  sufficient  to  make 
the  peas  tender,  otherwise  they  will  remain  hard  in  the  processing. 
The  peas  are  blanched  in  the  soda  bath  and  dipped  into  the 
cold  salt  water  for  twenty  to  thirty  seconds  after  blanching,  the 
same  as  for  beans.  Pack  the  peas  to  within  one-half  inch  of  the 
top  of  the  jars  or  cans.  If  the  cans  are  too  full,  some  of  the  peas 
may  burst  during  the  processing  and  make  the  liquor  cloudy.  Put 
one  and  one-half  level  teaspoonfuls  of  the  salt-and-sugar  mixture 
in  each  No.  2  can.  Cover  the  peas  with  water,  exhaust  No.  2  cans 
three  minutes,  and  process  in  hot-water  bath  intermittently  one 
hour  on  each  of  three  successive  days.  If  the  peas  are  very  small 
and  tender,  forty-five  minutes  to  each  processing  will  be  sufficient. 
Cool  the  tins  quickly  after  each  processing.  This  may  be  done  by 
plunging  the  cans  into  cold  water.  Process  quart  jars  one  hour 


140  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

on  each  of  three  successive  days.  No.  2  cans  of  peas  may  be 
sterilized  in  a  steam  retort  for  forty-five  minutes  under  a  ten- 
pound  steam  pressure. 

Pimientos. — The  peppers  should  be  picked  in  the  early  morn- 
ing and  handled  carefully  to  prevent  bruising.  This  can  be  done 
by  placing  them  in  shallow  trays,  from  which  they  can  be  easily 
sorted.  The  medium-sized,  uniformly  sound  peppers  should  be 
canned  whole.  The  irregular,  broken  ones  may  be  cut  into 
strips  and  canned  or  used  in  relishes,  sauces,  or  soup  mixtures. 

Select  sound,  uniform  pimientos  of  medium  size.  To  remove 
seeds,  cut  around  the  stem  of  each  with  a  slender  paring  knife  and 
remove  the  inside  partitions.  To  peel,  place  the  peppers  in  a  hot 
oven  from  six  to  ten  minutes  (until  the  skin  blisters  and  cracks), 
being  careful  not  to  allow  them  to  burn.  Then  remove  the  skin 
with  a  slender  paring  knife.  Flatten  the  peppers  and  pack  in 
horizontal  layers.  No  liquid  is  used  in  canning  pimientos.  The 
processing  brings  out  of  the  pimientos  a  thick  liquor,  which  almost 
covers  them  in  the  can  or  jar.  Cap  and  exhaust  No.  1  cans  for 
two  minutes  and  No.  2  cans  for  three  minutes.  Tip  and  process 
in  hot  water  at  boiling  temperature  (212°  Fahrenheit),  the  No.  1 
cans  for  twenty  minutes,  the  No.  2  cans  for  thirty-five  minutes. 
"When  canning  in  glass  the  pint  jars  should  be  well  filled,  then 
capped  and  processed  for  twenty-five  minutes  at  212°  Fahrenheit 
(Fig.  86). 

Chile  Peppers. — The  long,  sweet  green  Chile  peppers  are 
picked  and  canned  when  full  grown.  Unlike  the  pimientos,  the 
Chile  peppers  are  canned  before  any  tint  of  red  appears.  The 
pods  may  be  dropped  into  hot  oil  to  loosen  the  skins  from  the 
fleshy  part.  As  soon  as  they  are  cool  remove  the  skin,  stem,  and 
press  out  the  seeds,  leaving  the  Chile  as  nearly  whole  as  possible, 
roll  the  Chile  peppers  and  pack  into  cans,  cover  with  brine,  using 
one  ounce  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water,  process  the  same  as  for 
pimientos  (Fig.  87). 

Pumpkins. — The  best  pumpkins  for  canning  are  those  which 
color  and  ripen  evenly.  Wash  the  pumpkin,  cut  into  slices,  and 
steam  until  tender.  Remove  the  pulp  from  the  shell  and  heat  it 
thoroughly  in  a  pan  over  boiling  water.  A  double  boiler  is  a 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING 


141 


convenient  utensil  to  use  for  this  purpose.  Spices  may  be  added 
to  the  pumpkin  if  desired,  and  the  flavor  obtained  by  cooking  the 
spices  in  at  the  time  of  canning  is  better  than  making  the  addition 
at  the  time  of  using.  The  following  proportion  of  ground  spices 
is  generally  used :  For  each  quart  of  steamed  strained  pumpkin 


FIG.  86. — Roasting  and  packing  pimientos. 


add  one-half  cupful  of  brown  sugar,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cinna- 
mon, one  teaspoonf ul  of  salt,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  ginger.  Stir 
the  pulp  until  of  a  smooth,  even  consistency,  pack  into  cans  or 
jars  while  hot,  and  process  in  a  water-bath  intermittently  one 
hour  on  each  of  three  successive  days  or  process  in  a  steam- 


142 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


pressure  outfit  for  sixty-five  minutes  under  ten  pounds  pressure. 
Rhubarb. — Select  rhubarb  which  has  matured  quickly.  Trim 
off  the  upper  and  lower  ends,  wash  and  cut  into  even  lengths. 
It  may  be  packed  in  long  strips  in  glass  or  it  may  be  cut  into 
inch  lengths.  Fill  the  jars  as  tightly  as  possible  without  crushing 
the  pieces,  and  add  water  or  syrup.  As  sugar  is  necessary  when 
using  the  rhubarb,  it  is  better  that  it  be  added  at  the  time  of  can- 


J.  87  — Attractive  pepper  packs  in  the  centt 


ning.  If  syrup  is  desired,  use  one-half  cupful  of  sugar  to  one 
quart  of  water.  Rhubarb  when  packed  in  tin  must  be  put  into 
enamel-lined  cans.  It  is  usually  preferred  when  canned  in  glass. 
Process  No.  2  cans  and  quart  jars  in  hot-water  bath  for  fifteen 
minutes  at  212°  Fahrenheit. 

Spinach. — Prepare  the  spinach  by  picking  off  all  the  dead 
leaves  and  cutting  off  the  roots.  Cover,  one  peck  of  spinach  for 
two  minutes  with  scalding  water  in  which  you  have  dissolved  one 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  143 

teaspoonful  of  soda  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Wash  thoroughly, 
using  a  large  tub  of  water  so  dirt  can  sink  to  the  bottom ;  drain 
and  boil  rapidly  in  boiling  water  four  to  six  minutes.  Drain  well 
and  pack  into  sterilized  jars  or  cans,  cover  with  boiling  salt 
water,  using  one  tablespoonf  ul  salt  to  one  quart  of  water.  Process 
in  a  water-bath  for  one  hour  at  212°  Fahrenheit,  or  in  a  steam 
canner  for  35  minutes  under  ten  pounds  pressure. 

Other  Greens. — Young,  tender  beet  tops,  Swiss  chard,  and 
dandelions  may  be  canned  by  the  method  outlined  for  spinach. 

Squash. — Squash  is  canned  by  the  same  method  as  pumpkin, 
omitting  the  spices. 

Sweet  Potato. — Sweet  potatoes  should  be  canned  as  soon  as 
possible  after  digging.  A  potato  which  is  dry  and  mealy  when 
canned  is  desired  for  market.  The  Nancy  Hall  is  one  of  the 
best  varieties  for  canning.  The  Triumph  and  Southern  Queen 
are  also  used.  When  the  potatoes  are  allowed  to  stand  before  can- 
ning they  bruise  easily  and  start  to  decay  at  the  points  where  the 
rootlets  emerge.  Select  absolutely  sound  potatoes,  sort,  putting 
together  those  of  the  same  size — those  under  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter  in  one  lot  and  those  above  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter  in  another — boil  or  steam  until  the  potatoes  are 
about  half  cooked,  when  the  skin  will  slip  off  easily.  Peel  as  soon 
as  the  potatoes  are  cool  enough  to  handle,  and  pack  hot  into  cans 
or  jars  as  quickly  as  possible  to  prevent  discoloring.  For  a 
fancy  pack  the  potatoes  are  placed  in  layers,  but  a  standard  pack 
can  be  made  by  mashing  the  potatoes,  heating  thoroughly,  and 
packing  the  potatoes  hot.  All  space  in  the  can  should  be  filled 
with  potato,  as  the  presence  of  air  will  cause  discoloration.  Ex- 
haust No.  3  cans  for  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  exhaust  -should 
be  very  hot,  as  the  sweet  potato  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and 
the  heat  penetrates  through  the  sweet  potato  to  the  center  of  the 
can  very  slowly.  Process  for  four  hours  straight  in  boiling  water 
or  seventy  minutes  under  fifteen  pounds  steam  pressure. 

Tomatoes. — The  fruit  should  be  gathered  in  shallow  trays 
and  the  picking  done  in  the  shortest  posible  time.  The  tomato  is 
a  delicate  fruit,  and  if  it  is  allowed  to  stand  several  days  before 
canning,  or  if  it  is  picked  before  being  ripe  and  allowed  to  stand, 


144 


SUCCESSFUL,  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


it  does  not  develop  its  characteristic  flavor.  Sort  and  grade  the 
fruit.  Wash,  putting  into  trays  or  squares  of  cheesecloth,  and 
lowering  into  boiling  water  for  one  minute.  Remove  at  once  to 
prevent  cooking.  Plunge  into  cold  water  to  make  the  fruit 
firmer.  Peel  promptly.  Cut  out  the  core  with  a  slender-pointed 
knife,  being  careful  not  to  cut  into  the  seed-cells.  Pack  only 
red,  ripe,  sound  tomatoes,  whole  or  in  large  pieces.  Add  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  the  sugar-and-salt  mixture  to  each  No.  3  can  or 
quart  jar,  and  one  and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  in  each  No.  2  can ; 


FIG.  88. — Tomatoes  packed  for  salad  (the  thick  sauce  has  been  drained  off). 

exhaust  for  three  minutes  and  process  No.  2  cans  for  twenty 
minutes  and  No.  3  cans  and  quart  jars  for  twenty-five  minutes. 

In  canning  tomatoes  in  tin  no  addition  of  tomato  juice  in 
excess  of  the  amount  present  in  the  tomatoes  canned  should  be 
allowed  if  the  product  is  to  be  put  on  the  market.  Any  water 
or  extra  tomato  juice  is  considered  an  adulteration.  When  it  is 
desired  to  keep  tomatoes  whole  for  exhibits  or  home  use,  they  may 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  145 

be  packed  carefully  in  glass.  A  thick  tomato  sauce  poured  over 
them  will  aid  in  keeping  the  tomatoes  whole,  plump,  and  of  a 
better  color  than  is  possible  when  they  are  packed  in  a  thin 
liquor.  From  an  economical  standpoint,  a  jar  of  tomatoes  packed 
in  sauce  is  a  fine  product;  the  sauce  may  be  used  for  soups  and 
whole  tomatoes  for  salads  (Fig.  88). 

Tomato  Puree. — Small,  irregular,  and  undersized  tomatoes 
can  be  made  into  puree  or  soup.  For  this  purpose  they  should 
be  cooked  and  strained  at  the  time  they  are  canned  rather  than 
canned  fresh.  The  tomatoes  are  washed,  graded,  and  cooked 
until  tender,  then  run  through  the  colander  and  put  over  the 
fire  again.  The  mixture  is  then  concentrated  to  from  one- 
half  to  one-third  of  the  original  volume.  This  concentrated  to- 
mato sauce  may  be  canned  and  processed  by  the  method  outlined 
for  tomatoes.  The  concentrated  mixture,  of  course,  requires 
fewer  cans  and  jars,  as  the  amount  of  water  canned  is  reduced, 
and,  with  cans  costing  as  they  do,  this  is  an  important  con- 
sideration. 

Soup  Mixture. — A  good  combination  to  use  for  this  mixture 
is  one  quart  of  thick  tomato  pulp,  two  cupfuls  of  corn  or  tiny  lima 
beans,  and  two  cupfuls  of  okra,  with  seasoning  of  salt,  sugar,  pep- 
per, and  sliced  onion  (Fig.  89).  Cook  this  mixture  together  for 
ten  minutes,  pack  in  No.  2  cans  or  glass  jars,  exhaust  for  five  min- 
utes, and  process  for  two  hours,  or  in  a  steam  canner  for  thirty- 
five  minutes  under  five  pounds  pressure. 

Turnips. — Canned  turnips  are  not  generally  used.  Sometimes 
they  are  packed  commercially  for  hotel  use.  Only  small,  tender 
turnips  should  be  canned.  Wash,  scrape,  blanch  for  five  to  eight 
minutes,  pack  into  cans,  cover  with  hot  brine  (two  and  one-half 
ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water)  and  process  for  two  hours, 
or  intermittently  one  hour  on  each  of  three  successive  days. 

Creole  Sauce. — Two  cupfuls  of  corn,  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
chopped  onion,  one  tablespoonful  of  celery  seed  (crushed),  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one  cupful  of  sliced  okra,  one  bay  leaf, 
one  clove  of  garlic  (chopped),  one  quart  of  tomato  juice  and 
pulp,  one  cupful  of  chopped  sweet  red  pepper,  one  cupful  of 
chopped  sweet  green  pepper.  Salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  Strain 
10 


146  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Fia.  89. — Vegetables  packed  fresh  for  soup  mixture. 


VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  147 

the  seeds  and  skins  out  of  the  cooked  tomatoes,  keeping  all  pulp 
possible.  Cook  chopped  onion  in  butter  until  yellow.  Add  the 
prepared  vegetables  and  seasoning.  Simmer  until  the  corn  is 
tender.  Pack  hot  in  twelve-ounce  or  pint  jars  or  No.  2  cans. 
Process  in  the  glass  jars  for  twenty  minutes.  Exhaust  No.  2 
cans  for  five  minutes  and  process  for  fifteen  minutes. 

Mushrooms. — Directions  for  canning  mushrooms  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  bulletin  "Preserving  Wild  Mushrooms"  (see 
Bibliography) . 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  a  general  outline  to  be  followed  in  the  selection,  preparation,  and 

canning  of  most  vegetables.  If  any  step  should  be  omitted  for  special 
vegetables,  note  the  step,  naming  the  vegetables  for  which  it  should 
be  omitted ;  if  there  should  be  any  steps  added  for  special  vegetables, 
describe  them,  naming  the  vegetables  for  which  they  are  necessary. 

2.  What  is  the  usual  strength  of  brine  used  with  vegetables? 

3.  What  is  the  proportion  of  sugar  and  salt  in  the  sugar-and-salt  mixture  ? 

4.  For  what  vegetables  should  a  tin  can  not  be  used  unless  it  is  enamel 

lined?    Why  is  this  true? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTERS    IX    AXD    X 

1.  HAUSNER,  A.,  "The  Manufacture  of  Preserved  Foods  and  Sweetmeats," 

1912.     Published  by  Scott,  Greenwood  &  Son,  London.     $3. 

2.  PERNOT,  E.  F.,  "  Preserving  Wild  Mushrooms,"  Experiment  Station  Bul- 

letin No.  98,  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  January,  1908.     Published 
by  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Ore. 

3.  ROSE,  FLORA,  "  The  Preservation  of  Food  in  the  Home,"  1912,  parts  1, 

2,  and  3,  Cornell  Reading  Courses.     Published  by  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

4.  The  Canning  Trade,  "A  Complete  Course  in  Canning,"  1911.     Published 

by  the  MacNeal  Printing  Company,  Baltimore,  Md.     $5. 

5.  YOUNG,  ERMENTINE,  "  Canning  and  Preserving  Fruit  and  Vegetables  and 

Preparing  Fruit  Pastes  and  Syrups,"  1892.     Published  by  the  Rural 
Publishing  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTER    XI 

PRESERVES 

A  PRESERVED  FRUIT  is  one  which  has  been  cooked  in  cane-sugar 
syrup  until  it  is  clear,  tender,  and  transparent.  It  should  keep 
its  form  and  plumpness  and  be  crisp  rather  than  tough  or  soft. 
When  finished,  the  cells  of  the  fruit  should  be  filled  with  the  fla- 
vored syrup  in  place  of  the  fruit  juice. 

In  general,  all  the  principles  thus  far  discussed  in  canning  are 
to  be  applied  also  in  preserving.  The  special  problem  in  preserv- 
ing is  to  be  able  to  introduce  the  syrup  gradually  enough  to  make 
it  possible  for  the  syrups  to  permeate  the  fruit  thoroughly  with- 
out shrinking  and  toughening  it.  When  fruit  is  dropped  at  once 
into  hot  syrup  that  is  too  dense,  the  juice  of  the  fruit  will  be 
drawn  out  so  rapidly  hy  this  heavy  liquid  as  to  shrink  the  fruit. 
Then  the  outside  surface  becomes  so  coated  with  thick  syrup  that 
little  can  enter  the  fruit.  In  order  to  prevent  this  toughening  and 
shrinking,  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  cooking  of  the  fruit  in  a 
thin  syrup.  Most  preserves  should  be  begun  in  a  syrup  testing 
about  30  to  40  degrees  Brix  or  Balling  and  gradually  have  the 
syrup  thicken  by  boiling  with  the  fruit  in  it  (Frontispiece). 

Cooking  Preserves. — Preserves  should  be  cooked  over  a  very 
hot  fire  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  have  the  finished  product  spark- 
ling bright,  clear,  and  of  a  good  color.  If  slowly  cooked,  the  result 
will  be  a  dull,  dark,  unattractive  product.  The  fruit,  while  cook- 
ing, should  be  well  covered  with  the  syrup  so  that  no  top  pieces 
will  dry  on  the  surface  and  shrivel  before  a  sufficient  amount  of 
syrup  has  entered  the  pieces  to  plump  them.  Sometimes  the 
syrup  becomes  too  thick  before  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  clear  *and 
tender,  as  may  happen  when  a  small  quantity  of  fruit  is  cooked 
in  a  large  pan.  In  this  case  the  water  in  the  syrup  evaporates 
more  quickly  on  account  of  the  broad  surface  exposed,  and  the' 
syrup  should  be  thinned  by  adding  a  small  amount  of  water  or  a 
quantity  of  thinner  syrup.  Beginning  the  process  of  preserving 
fruit  in  a  thin  syrup,  cooking  rapidly  until  pieces  are  clear  and 
148 


PRESERVES 


149 


allowing  the  fruit  to  stand  immersed  in  the  syrup  over  night  will 
cause  more  of  the  syrup  to  permeate  the  fruit  and  plump  it.  If 
this  process  be  carried  on  gradually  enough,  the  fruit  may  be  com- 
pletely saturated  with  syrup  (as  in  the  case  of  crystallized 


FIG.  90. — Packing  watermelon  rind  preserves,  Peabody  College  for  Teachers, 
Nashville,  Term. 

products)  without  shrinking.     The  finished  product  should  keep 
its  original  form,  be  plump,  mellow,  and  clear. 

For  preserving  such  fruits  as  chayotes,  pears,  and  watermelon 
rind  (Fig.  90)  a  syrup  not  heavier  than  30  degrees  Balling  (p. 


150  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

12,9)  should  be  used  to  begin  the  cooking.  Juicy  fruits  like  berries 
may  be  put  at  the  beginning  into  a  heavier  syrup,  about  40  to  45 
degrees  Balling,  because  the  abundant  juices  of 
the  fruit  quickly  reduce  the  density  of  the  syrup 
before  shrinking  can  take  place.  Finished  pre- 
serves are  packed  in  a  syrup  ranging  in  density 
from  50  to  60  degrees  Balling.  When  acid  fruits 
are  added  to  the  syrup  some  of  the  sugar  is  in- 
verted or  changed  to  a  form  which  will  not  readily 
crystallize,  and  for  this  reason  the  syrup  may  be 
made  heavier  without  danger  of  crystallization. 
Since  long  cooking  injures  the  color  and  flavor 
of  fruits,  it  is  desirable  to  cook  delicate  fruits, 
such  as  berries,  for  as  short  a  time  as  possible. 

Cooling  Preserves. — Cooling  rapidly  after 
cooking  gives  preserves  a  better  color  and  flavor 
than  can  be  secured  when  they  are  packed  hot. 
Standing  immersed  in  the  syrup  after  cooking 
helps  to  plump  the  fruit.  Shallow  enamelled 
trays  or  pans  are  desirable  for  cooling.  Running 
cold  water  underneath  the  pans  will  help  to  cool 
them  more  rapidly  (Fig.  92).  Tin  utensils  should 
not  be  used,  because  the  fruit  juices  will  discolor 
in  it. 

Packing. — Pack  preserves  cold.  Bring  the 
syrup  in  which  they  have  been  standing  to  boil- 
ing, strain,  test,  and,  if  proper  density,  pour  over 
the  packed  preserves,  paddling  the  packed  jars  to 
remove  all  air  bubbles.  If  not  of  the  right  weight 
for  packing,  the  syrup  must  be  concentrated  to 
the  proper  density  by  boiling  it.  A  well-packed 
jar  of  preserves  will  contain  fruits  or  pieces  of 
•  FiG-91-— Ac+hem-  fruit  of  uniform  size  appropriate  for  filling  the 

ical  thermometer — 

Centigrade.  space  within   the   jar.     These  pieces  should  be 

arranged  in  rows  or  layers  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  entire 
pack  a  symmetrical  or  well-balanced  appearance.    A  little  more 


PRESERVES 


151 


time  and  care  is  required  to  pack  in  this  way,  but  the  space  is 
economized  and  the  quality  of  the  finished  product  is  enhanced 
(Fig.  93). 

Sealing  Preserves. — To  seal  properly  and  to  insure  safety 
from  mold,  it  is  necessary  to  process  all  preserves  after  packing 
them  into  the  sterilized  jars.  This  processing  may  be  done  in  a 
water-bath  by  heat  below  or  at  the  boiling  temperature,  depend- 
ing upon  the  kind  of  products  packed  and  upon  the  length  of 
time  the  heat  is  applied.  Since  preserves  contain  so  much  sugar, 
which  acts  as  a  preservative,  it  is  only  necessary  to  process 
against  molds.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  placing  the  filled 
jars  in  a  water-bath,  heating  it  to  a  temperature  of  J1800  to  190° 


FIG.  92. — Cooling  and  plumping  preserved  fruits. 

Fahrenheit,  and  holding  that  temperature  for  about  thirty 
minutes.  This  method  preserves  a  better  texture  and  flavor  in 
the  fruit,  than  can  be  retained  when  processing  is  done  at  a 
higher  temperature. 

Process  preserves  or  jams  in  twelve-ounce  or  pint  jars  for 
twenty  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit  (temperature  of  simmering 
water).  When  jars  with  glass  tops  and  screw  caps  or  wire 
clamps  (lightning  seal)  are  used,  leave  the  pressure  of  the  clamp 
on  the  top  of  cap  until  the  jars  are  entirely  cold. 

Special  Equipment. — Success  depends  more  upon  the  perfect 
freshness  of  the  fruit  than  any  other  feature.  "From  the  patch 
with  dispatch, "  is  a  good  slogan. 


152 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Uniform  results  may  be  obtained  more  easily  if  some  special 
equipment,  such  as  good  enamel  or  aluminum  vessels,  scales, 
measuring  cups,  wooden  spoons.,  paddles,  thermometers,  and 
saccharometers,  is  secured.  A  thermometer  which  gives  readings 
by  decrees  Fahrenheit  for  each  degree  from  zero  to  250°  is  use- 
ful iir  determining  the  finishing  point  in  preserves  (Fig.  91)  ; 
105i/20  to  106i/20  Centigrade,  or  222°  to  224°  Fahrenheit  is 
recommended  as  the  finishing  point  for  most  fruits.  The  syrup 


FIG.  93. — Packing  preserved  figs,  Walton  County,  Florida. 

will  not  reach  224°  Fahrenheit  until  a  sufficient  amount  of  water 
has  been  driven  off  by  the  boiling.  The  temperature  test  is  per- 
haps the  simplest  test  for  the  finished  preserving  syrup.  All  of 
the  different  batches  of  preserves  should  be  cooked  enough  and 
be  of  uniform  consistency.  Some  sour  fruits,  such  as  cherries  and 
currants,  when  preserved  are  cooked  to  a  higher  temperature 
because  of  the  acid  present.  106°  to  108°  Centigrade  or  224° 
to  226°  Fahrenheit  is  a  good  finishing  point  for  these  products. 
The  saccharometer  is  a  little  more  'difficult  than  the  ther- 
mometer to  handle,  since  sufficient  syrup  must  be  taken  from 


PRESERVES 


153 


the  kettle,  poured  over  the  spindle  into  a  cylinder  or  bottle  deep 
enough  to  float  it,  and  the  reading  taken,  or  the  spindle  may  be 
floated  in  the  kettle  if  it  is  deep  enough. 

Proportion  of  Sugar. — Usually  three-fourths  pound  of  sugar 
for  each  pound  of  fruit  is  allowed  for  preserves.     Firm  fruits 


FIG.  94. — Only  freshly  picked  berries  should  be  preserved. 

like  quinces,  melon  rinds,  hard  pears,  and  crab  apples  are  better 
if  cooked  in  boiling  water  until  tender  before  adding  them  to 
the  syrup. 

The  use  of  preserves  in  the  daily  menu  should  be  limited,  since 
they  are  so  much  richer  than  fresh  and  plain  canned  fruits. 
Strawberries,  plums,  sour  cherries,  quinces,  and  melon  rind  are 
more  palatable  when  preserved  than  when  canned. 

Berries. — Only  freshly  picked  berries  should  be  preserved 
(Fig.  94) .  Practically  the  same  methods  are  to  be  followed  in  the 


154  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

preserving  of  all  berries.  Berries  should  be  gathered  in  shallow 
trays  or  baskets,  and  not  in  deep  vessels  which  allow  them  to  be 
bruised  and  crushed.  They  should  be  uniform,  ripe,  and  sound ; 
only  large,  firm  berries  should  be  selected  for  preserving.  All 
berries  should  be  carefully  sorted  and  lightly  washed  by  placing 
in  colander  and  pouring  water  over  them  rather  than  putting 
them  into  a  pan  of  water. 

The  following  proportion  is  recommended :  two  pounds  of 
whole  berries — two  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar — one  pint  of 
berry  juice. 

If  the  best  possible  color  and  flavor  is  to  be  secured  for  the 
finished  product,  the  syrup  for  preserved  berries  should  be  made 
of  berry  juice,  obtained  by  crushing,  heating  and  straining  the 
softer  broken  berries.  Boil  together  the  berry  juice  and  the 
sugar  and  skim  and  cook  the  syrup  before  dropping  the  berries 
into  it,  to  prevent  shrivelling  and  toughening  the  fruit.  Return 
to  the  fire  and  bring  slowly  to  a  boil  in  a  covered  pan.  Remove 
the  cover  and  cook  until  the  fruit  looks  clear,  being  very  care- 
ful not  to  overcook;  the  berries  should  remain  whole.  If  a 
thermometer  is  used  the  cooking  may  be  finished  at  222°  to  224° 
Fahrenheit.  Skin  and  cool  in  a  covered  pan.  If  berry  preserves 
are  covered  for  five  minutes  before  removing  from  the  fire  and 
the  vessel  left  covered  while  cooling  the  product  will  be  more 
plump.  The  fruit  will  be  better  if  allowed  to  cool  in  shallow 
trays  or  pans  and  stand  in  the  syrup  over  night ;  it  improves  the 
shape  and  flavor,  as  the  berries  absorb  more  of  the  syrup,  be- 
come heavier,  and  pack  better.  Lift  the  berries  out  of  the  syrup 
carefully  and  pack  cold,  filling  the  sterilized  jars  with  berries  be- 
fore pouring  the  syrup  over  them.  A  good  pack  requires  more 
berries  than  syrup.  Cap,  process  pint  jars  for  ten  minutes  at 
180°  Fahrenheit,  seal,  and  store  in  a  dark  dry  place. 

Packing  syrup  for  berries  should  have  a  density  of  50  to  55 
degrees  Balling  (see  p.  129). 

Strawberry  Preserves. — 

2  pounds  of  berries  i/2  cup  of  berry  juice 

iy<2  pounds  of  sugar 


PRESERVES  155 

Wash,  cap,  and  stem  the  strawberries.  Make  a  syrup  of  the 
sugar  and  juice  and  add  the  berries.  Cook  to  222°  Fahrenheit 
or  105y2°  Centigrade,  or  until  the  syrup  is  very  thick.  Cook 
quickly,  pack  into  sterilized  jars,  and  seal  as  for  preserves.  More 
of  the  natural  flavor  is  retained  by  using  this  method,  and  no 
syrup  will  be  left  over,  which  means  a  saving  in  sugar,  but  the 
yield  is  not  so  great  and  the  fruit  does  not  remain  whole  and 
plump  as  in  the  first  method  given  above. 

Currant  and  Cherry  Preserves. — White  currants  and  cherries 
may  be  preserved  by  following  the  same  directions  given  for 
strawberry  preserves,  except  that  in  using  a  thermometer  to  de- 
termine the  finishing  point  for  cherry  preserves  the  temperature 
should  be  run  up  to  226°  Fahrenheit  or  107°  Centigrade.  A 
heavier  packing  syrup  is  more  necessary  for  sour  cherries  than 
for  the  sweet  ones. 

Sun-cooked  Preserves. — Cherries,  currants,  raspberries  or 
strawberries  alone,  or  a  combination  of  two-thirds  currants  and 
one-third  raspberries,  may  be  cooked  by  this  method.  Dampness 
is  a  great  foe  to  successful  sun  cookery.  The  berries  should  be 
washed,  capped,  stemmed,  drained,  and  measured.  Allow  an 
equal  weight  of  sugar  for  fruit.  For  each  two  pounds  of  berries 
measure  one-fourth  cupful  of  berry  juice  and  heat  with  the 
sugar.  Cook  and  pour  over  the  whole  berries  in  shallow  trays. 
Stand  in  the  sun  for  three  or  four  days,  bringing  indoors  each 
night.  Allow  the  fruit  to  remain  in  the  sun  until  it  is  well 
plumped  and  the  syrup  has  thickened  almost  to  a  jelly.  If  the 
sun  fails  to  shine,  keep  the  preserves  in  a  cool  oven. 

Sour  Orange  Preserves. — The  peel  of  the  native  sour  orange, 
which  is  found  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf  States,  makes 
delightful  preserves.  Grate  off  evenly  all  yellow,  cut  the  oranges 
into  quarters,  and  peel.  Soak  the  peel  in  salt  water  (one  cup- 
ful of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water)  for  two  or  three  days,  chang- 
ing the  water  twice  daily.  Cover  with  clear  water  and  boil  for 
ten  minutes,  drain,  and  repeat  the  boiling  twice  to  remove  all 
bitterness.  When  the  peel  is  tender  drop  it  into  a  heavy  syrup 
(two  cupfuls  of  sugar  to  two  cupfuls  of  sweet  orange  juice)  for 
each  two  pounds  of  peel,  and  cook  rapidly  until  clear  and  trans- 


156  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

parent.     Cool  before  packing,  pack  into  sterilized  jars,  process 
pints  for  fifteen  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit,  seal,  and  store. 
Preserved  Whole  Kumquats. — 

2  pounds    of     whole    kumquats  2  pounds  of  sugar 

(after  cooking)  1   quart  of  water 

Scrub  the  kumquats  with  soap  and  warm  water,  scald  them 
with  boiling  soda  water,  using  a  cupful  of  soda  to  five  quarts 
of  water.  Allow  fruit  to  stand  in  the  soda  bath  until  cool, 
drain  and  slit  each  kumquat  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife  to  pre- 
vent them  from  bursting  open  while  cooking.  Drop  into  boiling- 
water  and  cook  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  (until  tender).  After 
this  the  seeds  can  easily  be  removed.  Boil  the  sugar  and  water 
together  for  ten  minutes,  add  the  drained  kumquats  and  cook 
until  clear  and  transparent.  The  fruit  will  keep  its  shape  better 
if  the  cooking  is  done  in  a  covered  pan.  Carefully  place  the 
fruit  into  trays,  pour  the  syrup  over  it  and  allow  to  remain  over 
night  to  plump.  Pack  the  kumquats  into  sterilized  jars,  strain 
and  pour  the  syrup  over  them,  process  pint  jars  for  fifteen 
minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit,  and  seal  tightly  while  hot. 

Kumquat  Preserves. — 

1   pound  of  kumquats  %  pound  of  sugar 

1  pint  of  water 

The  kumquat  pulp,  which  remains  in  the  filter  after  the  juice 
has  been  drained  off  for  jelly,  may  be  made  into  a  preserve.  The 
seeds  should  be  removed  when  the  fruit  is  first  prepared  for  the 
jelly.  Pass  the  pulp  through  a  food  chopper,  weigh,  and  allow 
three-fourths  pound  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  pulp.  Cook  the 
water  and  pulp  together  for  twenty  minutes,  add  the  sugar,  and 
continue  boiling  rapidly  until  the  mixture  becomes  bright  and 
clear  and  of  proper  consistency.  If  Satsuma  orange  juice  is 
used  in  place  of  water  in  these  kumquat  recipes  an  even  more 
delightful  flavor  may  be  obtained  in  the  finished  product. 

Preserved  Peaches. — 

1  peck  of  peeled  peaches  3%  pounds  of  brown  sugar 

3  pints  of  cider  vinegar  ys  ounce  of  nutmeg 

1  ounce  of  cloves  1  ounce  of  cinnamon 


PRESERVES  157 

Peel  the  peaches  and  put  them  into  a  stone  jar.  Break  up 
spices,  scald,  and  then  strew  them  through  the  peaches.  Boil 
sugar  and  vinegar  together  for  ten  minutes  and  pour  over  the 
peaches  while  very  hot.  Repeat  this  for  three  consecutive  days, 
then  boil  all  together  for  ten  minutes,  cool,  pack,  and  process. 

Plums  may  be  preserved  by  the  same  method  as  for  peaches 
but  adding  one  pint  less  of  vinegar. 

Preserved  Pears. — 

1  pound  of  pears  1  cupful  of  water 

%  pound  of  sugar 

Pears  may  be  preserved  whole,  in  halves,  or  quarters.  Seckel 
pears  are  often  preserved  whole.  If  Keifer  pears  are  used,  they 
should  boil  in  clear  water  after  being  pared  until  they  can  be 
easily  pierced  with  a  darning-needle.  Then  place  them  in  the 
syrup,  cook,  cool,  plump,  pack,  process,  and  seal  the  same  as  for 
all  preserves. 

Ginger  Pears. — -Use  hard  or  under-ripe  pears,  pare,  core,  and 
cut  into  very  thin  slices.  To  eight  pounds  of  pears  allow  eight 
pounds  of  sugar,  one  cupful  of  water,  juice  of  four  lemons.  Cut 
the  lemon  rinds  into  thin  strips  and  add.  Also  add  one-eighth 
pound  of  ginger  root  cut  into  pieces.  Simmer  until  thick  as 
marmalade.  Pack  like  peach  jam. 

Ginger  Apples. — Hard  varieties  of  apples  are  delicious  when 
preserved  by  the  method  just  outlined. 

Apple  Preserves. — 

1  pound  of  apples  1  cupful  of  water 

1  pound  of  sugar  %  lemon  sliced  thinly 

Whole  crab  apples,  packed  with  or  without  the  stems,  make 
an  attractive  preserve.  Pare,  allow  the  apples  to  remain  whole, 
and  follow  same  directions  given  for  plain  preserved  peaches. 

After  the  apples  have  plumped  in  the  syrup  over  night  it 
may  be  necessary  to  pour  off  the  syrup  and  boil  it  for  ten  minutes, 
or  until  it  is  of  the  desired  consistency.  Strain  the  syrup  and 
pour  it  over  the  apples,  which  have  been  carefully  placed  so  that 
all  stems  will  be  upward.  Process  and  seal  as  for  all  preserves. 

Large,  firm  apples,  if  used  for  preserves,  are  perhaps  better 


158  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

if  pared,  cored,  and  quartered  before  cooking  in  the  syrup.  The 
parings  and  cores  may  be  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes  in  the  water 
and  strained  out  before  the  sugar  is  added  to  make  the  syrup. 
This  will  add  color  and  some  pectin  to  the  preserving  syrup. 
Pectin  is  the  jelly-making  substance  found  in  some  fruit  juices. 

Golden  Pumpkin  Chips. — Remove  the  skin  and  seeds  from  a 
medium-sized  pumpkin  which  has  been  cut  into  quarters;  then 
slice  the  pieces  across,  cutting  each  piece  about  one-quarter 
inch  thick.  Prepare  a  syrup  as  for  preserved  apples,  allowing 
three-quarter  pound  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of  pumpkin,  and 
proceed  by  the  directions  given  in  that  recipe. 

Preserved  Watermelon  Rind. — 

1  pound  of  melon  rind  1  lemon 

1  pound  of  sugar  1  ounce  of  lime  (CaO) 

2  quarts  of  water 

Cut  the  rind  into  one-inch  squares,  remove  peel  and  all  pink 
part,  and  weigh.  Soak  over  night  in  lime  water  (one  ounce  of 
lime  to  two  quarts  of  water).  The  lime  (calcium  oxide)  may  be 
secured  from  a  drug  store.  The  following  morning  allow  the 
rind  to  stand  for  two  hours  in  clear  water.  Drain  well,  then 
drop  into  boiling  water  and  boil  rapidly  for  ten  minutes.  Drain 
again  and  add  gradually  to  the  syrup  (made  by  boiling  together 
two  cupfuls  of  sugar  and  one  quart  of  water).  Add  to  this  the 
juice  of  one-half  lemon  and  three  extra  slices  of  lemon.  Cook 
until  the  melon  is  tender  and  transparent.  Allow  to  stand  cov- 
ered with  the  syrup  until  cold,  arrange  the  pieces  attractively  in 
the  jars,  garnishing  with  slices  of  lemon.  Cover  with  the  syrup 
testing  50  to  55  degrees.  Process  and  seal  (see  p.  129). 

Gingered  Watermelon  Rind. — 

1       pound  of  melon  rind  1  ounce  of  ginger 

iya  pounds  of  sugar  %  lemon 

Follow  the  same  method  as  for  melon  rind  preserves  until 
after  the  rind  has  been  freshened  in  cold  water.  Then  drain 
well  and  boil  rapidly  for  fifteen  minutes  in  strong  ginger  tea 
(one  ounce  of  ginger  to  one  quart  of  water).  Finish  cooking  in 
a  30-degree  syrup  made  by  using  two  pints  of  the  strained  ginger 


PRESERVES  159 

tea  with  two  pints  of  water  and  one  and  one-half  pounds  of 
sugar.  Cook  rapidly  until  tender  and  transparent  (about  one 
hour).  After  rind  has  boiled  for  one-half  hour,  add  one-half 
lemon,  cut  into  thin  slices.  Cook  until  rind  is  tender  and  trans- 
parent. Cool,  pack,  and  process  like  preserves. 

Gingered  watermelon  rind,  chopped  finely,  is  excellent  to  com- 
bine with  canned  sweet  red  pimientos  for  making  the  Spanish 
ehutney  (see  p.  206). 

Preserved  Figs. — 

0  quarts  of  figs  1  cupful  of  baking  soda 

4  pounds  of  sugar  6  quarts  of  boiling  water 

3  quarts  of  water 

Select  firm,  sound  fruit,  discard  all  over-ripe  or  broken  figs. 
Sprinkle  one  cupful  of  baking  soda  over  the  selected  figs  and 
cover  with  about  six  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Allow  them  to 
stand  for  fifteen  minutes,  drain  off  this  soda  solution,  and  rinse 
the  figs  well  in  clear,  cold  water.  Let  the  figs  drain  while  syrup 
is  being  prepared.  Mix  sugar  and  the  three  quarts  of  water, 
boil  for  ten  minutes,  and  skim.  Add  well-drained  figs  gradu- 
ally so  as  not  to  cool  the  syrup.  Cook  rapidly  until  figs  are  clear 
and  tender  (about  two  hours).  When  the  figs  are  transparent, 
lift  them  out  carefully  and  place  in  shallow  pans.  If  the  syrup 
is  not  heavy  enough  (testing  about  50  to  55  degrees  with  a  sac- 
charometer) ,  continue  boiling  until  it  reaches  the  desired  density, 
then  pour  it  over  the  figs,  being  careful  to  see  that  the  fruit  is 
entirely  covered.  Let  stand  over  night.  Next  morning  pack  the 
figs  cold  in  sterilized  jars,  having  stems  all  the  same  length  and 
placing  the  figs  so  that  all  stems  will  be  upward.  Fill  each  jar 
to  overflowing  with  the  syrup  of  55  degrees  density  (p.  129). 
Cap,  clamp,  process,  and  seal  immediately. 

Yellow  Tomato  Preserves. — 

4  pounds  of  fruit  Vi  ounce  of  ginger 

6  pounds  of  sugar  %  lemon 

2  quarts  of  water  %  ounce  of  cinnamon 

Boil  together  water,  sugar,  lemon,  and  spices  for  fifteen 
minutes,  or  until  217°  Fahrenheit  is  reached;  add  fruit  gradu- 


160  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

ally  and  cook  gently  until  the  fruit  becomes  bright  and  clear, 
stirring  occasionally  and  being  careful  not  to  allow  it  to  burn. 
If  a  thermometer  is  used,  cook  to  222°  Fahrenheit,  pour  into 
trays,  stand  over  night,  pack  the  tomatoes  cold,  and  strain  the 
syrup  over  them.  Process  as  for  other  preserves. 

Small  green  or  red  tomatoes  may  be  preserved  whole  by  this 
same  method. 

Pineapple   Preserves. — 

1  pound  of  fruit  %  pound  of  sugar 

Peel,  core,  and  slice  the  fruit,  place  alternate  layers  of  sugar 
and  fruit  in  a  bowl  and  allow  to  stand  over  night.  Next  morn- 
ing drain  off  the  syrup  and  boil  it  for  ten  minutes,  add  the  fruit 
and  continue  cooking  fifteen  minutes,  remove  from  the  fire, 
skim  and  pack  into  jars,  process  pint  jars  at  212°  Fahrenheit  for 
fifteen  minutes  in  a  water-bath. 

Cherry  Preserves. — 

4  pounds  of  cherries  1  cupful  of  cherry  juice 

3  pounds  of  sugar 

Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar  and  fruit  juice,  cool,  add  seeded 
cherries,  and  cook  rapidly  until  fruit  is  clear  and  syrup  is  of 
the  proper  consistency.  If  a  thermometer  is  used,  finish  cherry 
preserves  at  106°  to  108°  Centigrade,  or  223°  to  226°  F.  Cool, 
pack  into  jars,  and  process  as  for  other  preserves. 

Cherries  (Vinegarette). — 

4  pounds  of  sweet  cherries  3  pounds  of  sugar 

1   quart  of  vinegar  1   cupful  of  cherry  juice 

Carefully  remove  the  stones,  place  cherries  in  trays  or  pans, 
and  cover  with  diluted  vinegar  (two  cupfuls  of  water  and  one 
cupful  of  vinegar).  Allow  to  stand  over  night,  drain  well  next 
morning,  and  cover  the  four  pounds  of  fruit  with  a  heavy  syrup, 
made  by  boiling  together  three  pounds  of  sugar  and  one  cupful 
of  cherry  juice.-  Allow  to  stand  in  this  syrup  in  the  sun  for 
three  or  four  days  to  plump.  Pack  into  jars  and  strain  the  syrup 
over  them.  Cherries  preserved  in  this  way  are  sometimes  called 
homemade  maraschino  cherries.  This  product  may  be  artificially 
colored  with  vegetable  coloring  matter,  which  can  be  secured  from 


PRESERVES 


161 


the  druggist.     A  small  amount  of  the  coloring  should  be  added 
when  the  cherries  are  put  in  the  heavy  syrup. 

Candied  Fruits. — Whole  cherries,  apricots,  peaches,  and  pears 


FIG.  95. — A  steam-jacketed  preserving  kettle.    (Heinz  Company.) 
Note  use  of  thermometer  and  arm  and  ball  weight  valve  to  control  steam  pressure. 

in  halves,  sliced  pineapples,  and  whole  figs  are  often  prepared  in 
this  way.     It  is  a  lengthy  and  tedious  procedure.     It  calls  for' 
11 


162  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

slow  cooking  on  the  instalment  plan,  and  shallow  trays  for 
plumping  the  fruit  are  necessary. 

First,  the  fruit  to  be  candied  should  be  washed,  peeled,  or 
pared,  if  necessary,  cut  or  sliced  and  dropped  into  boiling  water 
for  two  or  three  minutes.  Drain  well,  cover  with  syrup  made  by 
boiling  together  one  pound  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  fruit  with 
one  cupful  of  water.  Boil  rapidly. for  fifteen  minutes,  remove 
from  the  fire,  and  allow  to  stand  over  night.  The  next  morning 
boil  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  again,  and  repeat  the  heating  and 
cooling  for  four  to  six  days,  according  to  how  rapidly  the  water  is 
drawn  out  and  the  syrup  is  absorbed.  The  fruit  plumps  slowly, 
and  the  gradual  increase  in  the  density  of  the  syrup  caused  by 
the  many  cookings  insured  tender  fruit  which  is  filled  with  syrup. 
After  the  fruit  is  transparent  and  bright,  lift  it  from  the  syrup 
and  dry  in  the  sun  or  in  a  cool  oven. 

Crystallized  Fruit. — If  a  crystallized  fruit  is  desired,  use 
fruit  prepared  by  the  preceding  recipe.  When  the  fruit  is  dry, 
cover  it  with  a  60-degree  syrup  (see  p.  129)  and  allow  it  to  stand 
for  two  or  three  days;  then  drain  off  the  syrup  and  dry  the 
pieces  of  fruit  in  the  sun  or  in  a  cool  oven. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  preserved  fruit?     What  is  the  standard  for  such? 

2.  What  is  the  special  problem  in  preserving? 

3.  What  preliminary  step  is  it  wise  to  take  when  preserving  hard  fruits, 

as  quinces,  hard  pears,  etc.? 

4.  Why  should  preserving  be  done  over  a  hot  fire?     What  is  the  effect  of 

slow  cooking? 

5.  What   is   the    difference    between    preserved,    candied,    and   crystallized 

fruit? 

G.  Describe  a  good  saccharometer  to  use  in  preserving,  stating  its  name, 
purpose,  and  method  of  use. 

7.  How  may  a  thermometer  be  used  if  no  saccharometer  were  at  hand  ? 

8.  Describe  how  each  instrument  may  be  used  to  determine  when  the  final 

point  in  cooking  has  been  reached. 

0.  When  preserving,  how  will  you  decide  how  dense  the  syrup  shall  be 
into  which  you  place  the  fruit? 

10.  Why  should  preserves  be  allowed  to  cool  before  packing? 

11.  When  packed,  at  what  temperature  should  they  be  processed?     What  is 

the  purpose  of  this  processing? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See  Chapter  XIII,  page  188. 


CHAPTER  XII 

MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES 

MARMALADES,  jams  and  conserves,  when  well  made,  always 
show  a  jelly-like  appearance,  thus  denoting  that  there  must  be 
some  pectin  present  in  the  fruit  which  is  used.  Pectin  is  the 
jelly-making  property  found  in  some  fruit  juices  (see  description 
under  "Jelly  Making,"  p.  174).  Marmalades,  jams  and  con- 
serves should  be  cooked  very  rapidly  over  a  hot  fire  in  order  to 
retain  the  best  flavor  and  a  bright  color.  These  are  the  most 
attractive  features  of  the  finished  products. 

Marmalades. — If  large  fruits  are  made  into  marmalades  they 
are  thinly  sliced  and  cooked  in  a  clear  syrup  as  in  preserving. 
The  finished  product  shows  the  fruit  appearing  in  small  pieces 
throughout  the  mixture,  and  it  is  smooth  in  consistency. 

When  marmalades  are  made  of  citrus  fruits,  such  as  grape- 
fruit, orange,  kumquat,  and  lemon,  the  pectin  is  found  in  the 
white  inner  skin ;  none  is  present  in  the  juice.  The  yield  of  the 
finished  product  of  marmalades  made  by  the  three-day  process  is 
greater,  but  it  is  perhaps  no  clearer  nor  more  jelly-like  in  con- 
sistency than  that  which  is  made  in  a  single  day.  The  pectin  in 
the  fruit  is  extracted  by  standing,  heating,  and  reheating  with 
the  acid  present.  Cool  marmalade  to  176°  Fahrenheit  or  80° 
Centigrade  before  pouring  into  glasses  or  jars.  This  prevents 
the  pieces  from  rising. 

Jams. — Whole  small  fruits  are  used  in  making  jams,  but  the 
fruit  does  not  remain  whole  in  the  preparation  of  jam.  The 
syrup  is  bright  and  the  mixture  is  alike  throughout  when  the 
product  is  finished.  Practically  the  same  methods  are  followed 
in  making  jams  of  all  berries.  The  ripe  broken  ones  give  a  fine 
color  and  flavor,  but  one-half  of  the  quantity  of  the  berries  se- 
lected for  making  jam  should  be  slightly  under-ripe;  this  is 
necessary  to  give  the  jelly-like  consistency  to  the  finished  prod- 

163 


164  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

uct.  More  pectin  is  usually  present  in  rare-ripe  or  under-ripe 
fruit  than  in  prime  ripe  fruit.  Cooking  in  small  quantities  will 
also  help  to  retain  the  color  and  flavor.  A  more  delicate  flavor 
will  be  retained  by  allowing  three-quarters  pound  of  sugar  to 
each  pound  of  berries  than  by  using  an  equal  proportion  by 
weight  of  each. 

Jam  should  be  cooked  rapidly  in  a  porcelain-lined  vessel  and 
stirred  with  a  wooden  spoon  or  paddle.  Frequently  move  the 
spoon  across  the  center  of  the  pan,  first  toward  you  and  then  from 
you,  and  around  and  across  the  pan,  being  careful  to  move  the 
mixture  from  the  bottom  of  it.  Do  not  stir  too  rapidly  or  beat 
the  mixture.  A  thermometer  is  useful  in  making  jams,  cooking 
to  222°  Fahrenheit  when  finished.  They  will  then  give  the  same 
test  as  for  jelly:  cool  a  small  quantity  in  a  spoon,  and  when  it 
flakes  off  the  side  of  the  spoon  instead  of  coming  off  in  drops  it  is 
finished,  and  should  be  removed  from  the  fire  immediately.  Jams 
are  thicker  when  cold  than  when  hot,  and  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  cook  them  too  long. 

By  processing  jams  in  pints  or  small  jars  in  the  hot-water 
bath  for  twenty  to  thirty  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit  the  flavor 
ancj  the  color  are  better  preserved  than  when  processed  at  boil- 
ing temperatures  or  over.  A  perfect  seal  may  be  secured  by 
tightening  the  cap  immediately  at  the  end  of  the  processing. 

Fruit  butters  and  pastes  are  those  products  made  from  the 
edible  portion  of  the  fruit  which  has  been  passed  through  a  sieve 
and  which  has  had  the  excess  of  water  driven  off,  by  cooking, 
until  its  consistency  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  dairy  product 
butter,  but  not  quite  as  thick.  The  fruits  used  for  the  making 
of  butters  should  be  ripe,  as  immature  or  green  fruit  will  notice- 
ably affect  the  flavor  of  the  product,  and  the  fruit  must  be  sound, 
as  any  decayed  portion  of  the  fruit  entering  into  the  manufac- 
ture will  affect  the  taste  and  is  readily  detected  by  chemists, 
the  use  of  partly  decayed  fruit  being  in  violation  of  the  Federal 
and  state  food  laws.  In  the  process  of  making  butters  it  is 
necessary  that  the  edible  portion  be  passed  through  a  colander 
or  a  sieve  of  some  description.  The  size  of  the  mesh  of  the  sieve 
will  tend  to  affect  the  texture  of  the  finished  product.  Only  a 


MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES  165 

small  amount  of  sugar  is  required,  and  most  of  the  fruit  butters 
have  some  spices  added  to  them.  The  excess  of  water  is  driven 
off  by  cooking  until  the  consistency  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
dairy  butter.  Fruit  butters  are  generally  used  in  the  same 
manner  as  jams  and  marmalades. 

Fruit  pastes  and  rolls  are  somewhat  dryer  than  the  butter 
and  are  used  for  sandwich  fillings  and  often  as  a  confectionery. 

Conserves. — Conserves  are  made  either  of  small  or  large 
fruits,  or  both  combined,  with  sometimes  the  addition  of  nuts  and 
raisins.  Rapid  cooking  and  constant  care  are  essential  when 
making  conserves.  Nuts,  when  used,  should  be  added  five  minutes 
before  removing  from  the  fire. 

MARMALADES 

Orange  Marmalade. — 

3  pounds  of  oranges  1  MJ  pints  of  water 

3  lemons  3  pounds  of  sugar 

Wash,  remove  the  peel  and  seeds,  cutting  one-half  of  the 
peel  into  very  thin  strips,  and  add  it  to  the  pulp  and  balance  of 
the  peel,  which  has  first  had  the  yellow  portion  grated  off  and 
has  been  passed  through  a  food  chopper  with  the  pulp.  Cover 
with  water  and  let  stand  over  night.  Boil  for  ten  minutes  the 
next  morning,  allow  to  stand  for  twelve  hours,  add  the  sugar  and 
again  stand  over  night.  Cook  it  rapidly  the  next  morning  until 
the  jelly  test  can  be  obtained.  This  is  indicated  by  the  flaking 
and  sheeting  from  the  spoon.  Cool  to  176°  Fahrenheit,  pour 
into  sterilized  glasses,  and  seal  with  paraffin. 

Sour  Orange. — 

1  pound  of  peeled  sour  orange  14  pound      of      peel       removed 

1  quart  of  water  from  oranges 

1%  pounds    of    sugar 

Wash  the  fruit,  remove  the  peel  in  uniform  sections,  using 
only  the  portions  which  are  free  from  blemishes.  Cut  the  peel 
into  as  thin  slices  as  possible,  cover  with  water,  and  boil  for  ten 
minutes.  Drain,  cover  with  boiling  water,  and  repeat  the  proc- 
ess four  or  five  times  to  remove  the  bitter  flavor. 


166  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Weigh  the  pulp,  slice,  and  for  each  pound  of  oranges  allow 
one  quart  of  water  and  boil  until  very  tender.  Pour  into  a 
flannel  jelly-bag,  press  until  no  more  juice  can  be  obtained,  and 
filter  the  juice  through  another  clean  flannel  jelly-bag  without 
pressing.  Measure  and  pour  the  juice  into  the  kettle,  add  the 
sliced  peel,  and  1%  pounds  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  fruit 
taken,  and  boil  rapidly  until  it  reaches  the  jelly  point. 

Grapefruit. — Make  this  according  to  directions  given  for  sour 
orange  marmalade,  adding  three-quarter  pound  of  sugar  to  each 
pound  of  fruit,  instead  of  one  and  one-half  pounds. 

Kumquat. — Clean  the  kumquats  with  a  brush  and  water. 
Cover  them  with  scalding  soda  water  (one-half  cupful  of  soda 
to  one  gallon  of  water)  and  allow  them  to  stand  for  five  minutes. 
Rinse  in  clear  water,  slice  the  fruit,  and  remove  the  seeds.  Re- 
move the  centers  from  one-fourth  of  these  slices,  parboil  them 
for  three  minutes.  Place  all  except  slices  in  a  preserving  kettle, 
and  for  each  pound  of  pulp  allow  one  quart  of  water.  Cook 
until  tender.  Strain,  measure,  and  add  one  pint  of  sugar  for 
each  pint  of  fruit  juice.  Add  slices  or  circles  of  the  rind  and 
cook  all  together  until  the  jelly  stage  is  reached.  Cool,  pour 
into  sterilized  containers,  and  seal.  The  pulp  and  rind  which 
remains  may  be  made  into  a  delicious  jam. 

Combination  (Orange,  Grapefruit,  and  Lemon). — 
1  orange  1  grapefruit 

1  lemon 

Wash  and  shred  the  fruit,  add  three  times  the  bulk  of  water, 
boil  for  fifteen  minutes,  and  let  stand  over  night.  Next  morn- 
ing boil  for  ten  minutes  and  let  stand  again.  When  cold,  meas- 
ure pint  for  pint  of  sugar  and  cook  over  a  rapid  fire  until  jelly 
stage  is  reached. 

Crab  Apple. — Wash  and  core  crab  apples  and  put  them 
through  a  food  chopper.  Place  in  a  preserving  kettle  and  add 
water,  not  quite  covering  the  top  layer  of  apples.  Cook  until 
tender.  Weigh  and  add  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to 
each  pound  of  fruit.  Cook  until  the  jelly  stage  is  reached ;  pour 
into  sterilized  glasses,  cool,  and  cover  with  paraffin. 


MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES  167 

JAMS 

Berry. — While  wild  berries  may  be  used  in  all  these  recipes, 
the  quality  of  the  cultivated  berries  is  better.  The  Eldorado  is  the 
best  variety  of  blackberries,  and  the  Cuthbert  is  the  best  variety 
of  raspberry  for  jam.  Follow  general  directions  for  making  jams 
of  all  berries  (see  p.  163). 

Grape. — Remove  the  grapes  from  the  stems,  wash  and  press 
the  pulps  from  the  skins.  Boil  the  pulp  until  tender,  and  run  it 
through  a  sieve  to  remove  the  seeds.  Add  the  skins  to  the  pulp 
and  weigh.  To  each  pound  of  fruit  allow  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  of  sugar  and  cook  together  for  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes, 
or  until  the  skins  are  tender.  Two  hundred  and  twenty-six  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  will  prove  a  satisfactory  finishing  point  if  a 
thermometer  is  used.  Pack  hot  into  sterilized  jars  and  seal  im- 
mediately. Spices  may  be  added  if  desired — cinnamon,  white 
pepper,  and  cloves. 

Fig  Jam. — Select  ripe  figs,  remove  all  stems,  treat  them  with 
scalding  soda  solution,  and  rinse  thoroughly  as  for  preserving. 
Cook  in  quantities  not  larger  than  three  pounds  at  one  time. 
Allow  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar  to  each  three  pounds 
of  figs.  Add  barely  enough  water  to  start  the  cooking  (about 
one-half  cupful),  crush  the  figs,  heat  to  boiling  and  add  the 
sugar.  Cook  rapidly  to  220°  Fahrenheit.  Pack  and  process  like 
preserves  (see  pp.  150  and  151). 

Peach  Jam. — 

2  pounds  of  peaches  1   pound  of  sugar 

y2  cupful   of   peach   juice  2  teaspoonfuls  of  bark  cinnna- 

1  cracked  peach  seed  mon        (broken        in       small 

ya  teaspoonful  of  allspice  pieces) 

1  sprig  of  mace  1  teanspoonful  of  cloves 

1  inch   of   ginger   root 

Tie  spices  into  cheesecloth  bags;  cook  all  materials  together 
until  a  temperature  of  222°  Fahrenheit  is  reached.  Remove 
spice-bag.  Pack  hot  into  sterilized  jars,  clamp  on  hot  caps,  and 
put  away  to  cool. 


168  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

BUTTERS 

Apple  Butter. — 

10  pounds  of  apples  2  tablespoonfuls     of     ground 

4  pounds  of  sugar  allspice 

2  tablespoonfuls    of    ground  3  tablespoonfuls  of  ground  cin- 

cloves  namon 

0  quarts  of  cider 

Wash,  slice,  and  weigh  thex  apples.  Put  into  a  kettle  with  the 
cider  and  cook  until  the  apples  are  very  tender.  Pass  them 
through  a  sieve  to  remove  the  skins  and  seed.  Add  sugar  and 
spices  to  the  pulp.  Cook  until  the  mass  is  as  thick  as  desired, 
stirring  frequently  to  prevent  burning.  Pour  into  sterilized 
crocks  or  jars,  and  when  cool  cover  with  paraffin. 

Peach  Butter.— 

1  bushel  of  peaches  1  gallon  of  peach  juice 

5  pounds  of  sugar 

Prepare  the  juice  and  allow  it  to  stand  until  slightly  fer- 
mented. Combine  peaches,  juice,  sugar,  and  one-half  dozen 
peach  kernels.  Cook  and  pack  as  for  apple  butter. 

Guava  Butter. — Cook  guavas  until  tender  in  just  enough 
water  to  keep  them  from  burning.  Press  through  a  strainer  to 
remove  the  seeds.  Measure  the  pulp,  and  for  each  quart  of 
pulp  allow  three  cupfuls  of  sugar;  cook  and  pack  hot  as  for 
apple  butter  (Fig.  96). 

Lemon  Butter. — Select  four  medium-sized  lemons,  squeeze 
out  the  juice  and  grate  the  rind.  To  this  add  one-half  pint  of 
water,  one  pound  of  sugar,  and  three  eggs  which  have  been 
beaten  together.  Mix  thoroughly  and  cook  rapidly.  After  about 
five  minutes  add  a  tablespoonful  of  butter  and  continue  the 
cooking  until  a  consistency  such  as  is  required  for  apple  butter 
is  reached.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  product  does 
not  scorch.  Pour  into  sterilized  glasses,  cover  with  paraffin, 
and  set  aside  in  a  cool  dark  place. 

Peanut  Butter. — 

2  quarts  of  Spanish  peanuts  2  ounces  of  salt 

4  quarts  of  Virginia  peanuts 


MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES  169 

Roast  the  peanuts  uniformly  brown,  grind,  add  the  salt  and 
grind  twice  again  so  as  to  have  the  salt  well  distributed  through- 
out. Pack  into  small  jars  and  sterilize  twelve-ounce  containers 
for  one  hour  at  180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering)  in  a  water-bath. 
If  there  is  too  much  oil  in  the  butter  it  will  separate  and  the 
nuts  will  rise,  leaving  the  oil  in  the  bottom  of  the  jars.  The 
Spanish  peanut  contains  a  large  amount  of  oil,  therefore  it  is 
necessary  to  mix  this  variety  with  Virginia  peanuts  in  the  pro- 
portions given  above. 

CONSERVES 

Rhubarb  Conserve. — Wash  the  rhubarb,  cut  into  small  pieces, 
and  allow  for  every  three  pounds  of  rhubarb  three  oranges, 
three  pounds  of  sugar,  three-quarter  cupful  of  water,  one  pound 
of  seeded  raisins,  and  one-half  pound  of  shelled  pecans  (if  de- 
sired). Slice  oranges,  rind  and  all,  wash  raisins,  and  scald  the 
nuts.  Mix  all  together  and  boil  over  a  low  fire  for  about  forty- 
five  minutes.  If  a  thermometer  is  used,  cook  to  104°  Centigrade. 
Pour  hot  into  jars  and  seal  at  once. 

Medley  Fruit  Conserve. — 

2  pounds  of  peaches  %  pound  of  apples 

2  pounds  of  quinces  3  lemons 
ll/2  pounds  of  pears  Sugar 

Wash  the  fruit,  peel  or  pare,  core,  and  stone  the  fruit;  pass 
it  through  a  food  chopper  and  weigh.  To  each  pound  of  fruit 
allow  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar ;  put  fruit  and  sugar 
in  alternate  layers  in  a  bowl,  and  let  stand  over  night.  Next 
morning  place  in  the  preserving  kettle  with  the  pulp  of  lemons 
and  one- half  the  rind  sliced  in  thin  strips.  Boil  until  mixture 
becomes  very  thick.  One  cup  of  scalded  chopped  nuts  may  be 
added  if  desired,  five  minutes  before  removing  from  the  fire. 
Pack  hot  into  hot  sterilized  jars  and  seal  at  once. 

Plum  Conserve. — 

3  pounds     of     Damson     plums  1  pound  of  seeded  raisins 
(after  cutting)  1  orange 

1%  pounds  of  sugar  1  cup  of  shelled  pecans 

Juice  of  1  lemon 


170  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Slice  plums,  orange  and  lemon,  add  sugar  and  cook  until  thick 
and  transparent.  Put  nuts  into  mixture  five  minutes  before 
removing  from  the  fire.  If  a  thermometer  is  used  cook  the 
conserve  to  103°  Centigrade.  Pack  hot  into  sterilized  jars  and 
seal  immediately.  Process  pint  jars  for  thirty  minutes  at  180° 
Fahrenheit  in  a  water-bath. 

Fig  Conserve. — 

2  pounds  of  fresh  figs  or  1%  pounds  of  sugar 

1  quart  of  plain  canned  figs  %  cupful  of  pecans   (shelled) 

1  orange  %  pound  of  raisins 

Cut  all,  except  nuts,  into  small  pieces  and  cook  until  thick 
and  transparent  (about  one  hour).  Add  nuts  five  minutes 
before  removing  from  stove.  Pack  and  seal  hot.  Process  as  for 
plum  conserve. 

FRUIT  PASTES 

Fruit  pastes  are  sometimes  made  for  home  use  from  the  fruit 
pulp  which  is  left  after  some  of  the  clear  juice  has  been  extracted 
from  the  fruit  for  jelly  making.  A  product  of  delightful  flavor 
may  be  made  by  combining  the  pulp  of  different  kinds  of  fruits. 
Press  the  pulp  through  a  sieve,  measure,  and  to  each  pound  of 
cherry,  plum,  raspberry,  strawberry,  currant,  or  gooseberry  pulp 
allow  one  pound  of  powdered  sugar.  Cook  together  over  a  low 
fire,  carefully  watching  to  prevent  scorching,  until  it  begins  to 
thicken.  Cooking  the  pulp  in  a  double  boiler  for  the  last  half 
hour  of  the  cooking  will  aid  in  keeping  the  paste  from  burning. 
If  the  pulp  is  well  boiled  down  it  is  more  easily  dried.  Scalded 
and  chopped  nut  kernels,  crystallized  orange  peel,  or  preserved 
watermelon  rind  or  citron  can  be  cooked  in  the  paste.  Pour 
one-half  inch  layers  of  the  rather  solid  mixture  upon  marble  or 
glass  slabs  or  platters  which  have  been  rubbed  with  salad  oil. 
Place  where  a  breeze  or  current  of  air  will  pass  over  it  and  allow 
to  dry  for  two  or  three  days. 

Cut  the  paste  into  one-inch  squares,  roll  in  granulated  sugar, 
and  stand  again  in  a  draft  for  two  or  three  days.  Pack  in  tin 
boxes,  glass  jars,  or  paraffin-coated  containers.  If  packed  in 
layers,  place  a  piece  of  parchment  paper  between  the  layers. 


MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES  171 

Apricot,  peach,  apple,  and  quince  pastes  are  made  in  the 
same  manner,  except  the  proportion  of  sugar  may  be  reduced 
for  the  apple  and  quince,  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar 
being  a  fair  allowance  for  each  pound  of  pulp.  These  cubes  of 
fruit  paste  make  attractive  garnishes  for  custards,  fruit  cock- 
tails, creams,  cakes,  etc.  Different  flavorings,  such  as  vanilla 
or  peppermint,  may  be  used  in  these  pastes,  and  sometimes  harm- 
less vegetable  -colors  are  stirred  into  the  mass  just  as  soon  as  it 
is  removed  from  the  fire. 

A  fancy  pack  of  bands  of  color  might  be  arranged  as  in 
jelly  packing  if  several  different  fruit  pastes  are  made  at  one 
time.  When  nearly  dry  (before  cutting),  put  the  different 
colors  and  flavors  in  alternate  layers  until  four  or  five  layers 
have  been  used.  Press  lightly  and  allow  to  stand  for  one  hour 
in  a  draft.  Cut  into  one-inch  strips,  cutting  through  all  the 
layers,  and  dry  again  for  one  hour. 

Store  as  for  other  pastes. 

Fig  Paste. — Treat  the  figs  with  a  soda  bath  as  for  preserves, 
rinse  and  cook  until  tender  in  fresh,  clear  boiling  water.  Drain 
well  and  put  the  figs  through  a  food  chopper  or  rub  pulp  through 
a  colander.  Allow  one  pound  of  sugar  for  each  quart  of  pulp. 
Mix  and  cook  until  it  is  a  rather  solid  mass.  Spread  with  an 
oiled  spatula  on  the  oiled  surface  of  a  flat  dish,  marble  or  glass 
slab,  and  finish  drying  in  the  sun.  Three  or  four  days  will  be 
required  for  drying.  The  trays  should  be  brought  into  the  house 
each  night,  and  they  should  be  protected  from  both  flying  and 
crawling  insects.  When  thoroughly  dry,  roll,  wrap,  and  pack 
as  peach  roll  (p.  172). 

Quince  Cheese. — Wash  the  fruit,  cut  into  quarters,  remove 
core,  stem,  and  flower.  Cook  the  quinces  until  very  tender  in 
water,  drain  and  rub  through  a  sieve.  Measure  and  allow  three- 
quarter  pound  of  sugar  for  each  pound  of  pulp,  and  boil  to- 
gether until  it  is  so  thick  that  it  will  not  quickly  run  together 
when  a  spoon  or  wooden  paddle  has  passed  through  the  mass. 
The  pulp  left  from  quince  jelly  can  be  pressed  through  a  sieve 
and  used  as  fresh  pulp  in  making  this  paste  or  "  cheese. "  Pour 
hot  into  hot  sterilized  glasses  and  seal  like  jelly.  This  "quince 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


cheese,"  when  turned  out  of  the  glass,  will  hold  the  shape  of  the 
mould  and  may  be  sliced. 

Peach  Roll. — Select  ripe,  soft  peaches,  remove  the  skins  and 
stones,  weigh  the  fruit  and  add  one-fourth  pound  of  sugar  to 
each  pound  of  fruit,  place  over  the  fire,  and  while  cooking 
mash  with  a  wooden  spoon.  When  the  fruit  is  very  soft,  rub 
it  through  a  colander  to  insure  that  no  hard  lumps  remain. 
Continue  the  cooking  until  a  heavy  consistency  is  reached. 


FIG.  96. — Guava  paste,  served  with  cheese  and  crackers. 

Remove  from  the  pan,  spread  on  a  smooth  board  which  has 
been  greased,  place  in  the  sun  and  cover  with  cheesecloth  to 
keep  off  insects.  When  it  is  dry,  sprinkle  with  granulated  sugar, 
roll  it  up  and  wrap  tightly  in  a  cloth.  It  will  keep  for  a  long 
period  of  time 

Green  Tomato  Mince  Meat. — 


1  peck  of  green  tomatoes 
2%  pounds  of  brown  sugar 

2  pounds  of  raisins 

1  pound  of  beef  suet 
%  cupful  of  vinegar 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  salt 


2  tablespoonfuls  of  ground  cin- 
namon 

1  teaspoonful  of  ground  cloves 

2  teaspoonfuls  of  nutmeg 

2  cupfuls  of  chopped  apples   (if 
desired) 


Slice  the  tomatoes  thinly,  or  put  them  through  a  food  chopper, 
allow  to  drain,  cover  with  cold  water,  place  over  the  fire,  and 
boil  for  five  minutes.  Drain  well,  add  suet,  vinegar,  fruit,  and 


MARMALADES,  JAMS  AND  CONSERVES  173 

seasoning,  return  to  the  fire  and  allow  to  simmer  for  from  thirty 
to  forty-five  minutes. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  general  standard  for  marmalades  and  the  care  necessary  to 

secure  each  characteristic. 

2.  Where  is  pectin  found  in  the  citrus  fruits?     How  can  it  be  extracted? 

How  can  the  pieces  in  a  citrus  marmalade  be  prevented  from  rising? 

3.  From  what  are  jams  made?     State  the  standard  for  jams  and  the  care 

necessary  to  secure  each  characteristic. 

4.  Describe  the  care  necessary  while  the  jam  is  cooking.     What  caution  is 

it  wise  to  keep  in  mind  while  stirring  jams?     Describe  carefully  the 
method  for  testing  marmalades  and  jams. 

5.  Under  what  conditions  would  you  choose  to  make  a  conserve  rather  than 

a  marmalade  or  jam? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See  Chapter  XIII,  page  188. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

JELLY  MAKING 

Description. — Jellies  are  made  by  cooking  together  certain 
fruit  juices  and  sugar  in  the  proper  proportions.  A  good  glass 
of  jelly  is  clear,  sparkling,  transparent,  and  of  a  beautiful  color. 
When  slipped  out  of  the  glass,  it  holds  its  form  and  will  quiver. 
It  can  be  cut  with  a  clean,  distinct  cleavage,  retaining  the  clear 
surface  and  angles  made  by  the  knife.  Tenderness  and  firmness 
are  unmistakable  qualities.  The  aroma  and  delectable  flavor  of 
a  good  jelly  recalls  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  an  orchard 
or  a  vineyard.  There  are  two  types  of  jelly — the  fruit  jelly, 
that  is  made  from  the  natural  fruit  juices  which  contain  sufficient 
pectin  for  making  good  jelly,  and  the  pectin-base  jelly,  which 
is  usually  artificially  colored  and  has  the  addition  of  some 
flavoring.  Many  advocate  the  natural-fruit  jelly  in  preference 
to  the  pectin-base,  tinted  and  flavored  with  rose,  mint,  and 
other  such  flavors,  because  they  consider  the  pure  natural-fruit 
jelly  more  artistic. 

If  the  resulting  mass  is  syrupy  and  sticky  or  tough  and 
gummy,  it  fails  to  meet  the  requirements  for  a  jelly. 

Pectin,  the  Properties  Necessary  for  Jelly  Making. — Pectin 
is  the  essential  jelly-making  substance  found  in  fruit  juices.  A 
combination  in  fruit  juices  of  pectin,  acid,  and  sugar  in  the 
proper  proportions  is  essential  in  order  to  make  good  jelly.  The 
best  fruits  for  jelly  making  are  those  which  contain  both  acid 
and  pectin.  The  pectin,  the  fundamental  jelly-making  quality, 
does  not  exist  in  all  fruits,  and  it  is  more  abundant  in  slightly 
under-ripe  fruit  than  in  that  which  is  fully  ripe.  As  the  fruit 
ripens,  it  becomes  sweeter  and  it  is  believed  that  the  pectin, 
which  is  a  carbohydrate,  is  changed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  into 
a  fruit  sugar.  Therefore,  fruits  which  are  not  over-ripe  are 
most  satisfactory  for  jelly-making.  Apples,  currants,  goose- 
berries, grapes,  and  oranges  are  fruits  most  commonly  used  for 
174 


JELLY  MAKING 


175 


jelly  making.  Some  fruits  rich  in  pectin  do  not  contain  acid 
and  will  not  make  jelly  unless  an  acid  is  added.  The  quince 
and  guava  are  examples  of  this.  Jellies  may  be  made  from 
such  fruits  as  cherries,  pineapples,  rhubarb,  strawberries,  and 
peaches  if  the  necessary  pectin  is  added.  Pectin  can  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  white  part  of  the  orange-peel  and  added  to 
these  juices.  Therefore,  a  very  satisfactory  jelly  can  be  made 


FIG.  97. 


FIG.  98. 


FIG.  97. — A  commercial  jelly  strainer  placed  on  a  chair  back. 
FIG.  98. — A  commercial  jelly  strainer  placed  on  a  table. 

obtaining  the  flavor  and  color  of  fruits  which  do  not  contain 
sufficient  pectin  to  make  good  jelly.  If  half  the  fruit  selected 
is  ripe  fruit  and  the  other  half  slightly  under-ripe,  the  ripe 
fruit  will  furnish  the  fine  flavor  and  color,  while  the  under-ripe 
fruit  will  contain  the  jellying  property  and  give  a  better  con- 
sistency to  the  finished  product. 

Extracting  the  Juice. — This  is  easily  done  by  applying  heat. 
Fruit  juice  flows  more  readily  when  the  fruit  is  heated  than 
when  the  fruit  is  simply  crushed.  Heating  is  necessary  also 


176 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


to  develop  the  pectin  in  the  fruit.  Sometimes  when  no  pectin 
is  found  in  the  raw  pressed  juice  of  certain  fruits  juices  cooked 
out  of  the  same  fruit  will  show  a  large  amount  of  it.  Addition 
of  acid  before  cooking  will  also  help  to  bring  out  the  pectin. 


Grain 
AlcoU 


FIG.  99. — Alcohol  test  for  pectin  in  fruit  juices. 


ABC 

FIG.  100. — Testing  fruit  juice  for  pectin. 

The  quince  is  an  example  of  fruit  which  often  requires  an  acid 
to  be  added. 

Juicy  fruits  should  first  be  crushed  and  have  only  enough 
water  added  to  allow  the  fruit  to  cook  until  tender.  Less  juicy 
fruit,  of  which  the  apple  is  a  type,  requires  more  water.  For 


JELLY  MAKING 


177 


i 


each  pound  of  apples  use  two  pints  of 
water  and  cook  until  the  pieces  are  very 
tender. 

Squeeze  the  cooked  fruit  in  a  moist- 
ened double  cheesecloth  to  extract  the 
juice,  and  then  strain  the  juice  through 
a  flannel  or  haircloth  jelly-bag  which  has 
first  been  dipped  into  boiling  water.  By 
squeezing  the  pulp  before  letting  the  juice 
stand  to  drip  through  the  jelly-bag  more 
juice  is  obtained  from  the  first  dripping. 
Frequently  the  fruit  juices  may  be  ex- 
tracted a  second  time  by  adding  water  to 
the  pulp  and  recooking  it.  The  second 
extraction  is  weaker  in  pectin  and  will 
require  less  sugar  than  the  first  extraction 
(Figs.  97  and  98). 

Test  the  juice  for  pectin  and  find 
whether  there  is  considerable  pectin 
present.  Pour  into  a  glass  one  table- 
spoonful  of  the  fruit  juice  and  add  to  it 
the  same  amount  of  grain  alcohol  (95  per 
cent  pure),  mix  by  turning  the  glass 
gently,  then  pour  carefully  into  another 
glass.  If  the  pectin  precipitates  in  a  solid 
mass  or  clot,  it  is  usually  safe  to  add  a 
cupful  of  sugar  to  each  cup  of  juice  in 
making  jelly  (Figs.  99  and  100). 

If  the  pectin  does  not  collect  in  this 
manner,  the  amount  of  sugar  should  be 
decreased.  The  most  usual  mistake  made 
in  jelly  making  is  the  addition  of  too 
much  sugar,  the  result  being  a  syrup 
instead  of  a  jelly.  This  test  for  the  pres- 
ence of  pectin  in  fruit  juice  is  not  an 
accurate  quantitative  test,  but  simply 

FIG.     101. — A    saccharometer          -.  •  ,      ,-.  i-j.,1  i  j." 

floating  in  a  250-c.c.  cylinder,    indicates  whether  little   or  much   pectin 


2(9— 


100— 


220— 


178 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


is  present.  Different  juices  contain  varying  proportions  of  pec- 
tin, so  one  can  readily  see  what  a  risk  is  taken  when  equal 
volumes  of  sugar  and  fruit  juices  are  cooked  together  to  make 
jelly,  using  the  same  rule  for  every  sort  of  fruit.  If  the  pectin 
test  shows  a  small  amount  of  pectin,  only  half  the  volume  of 
sugar  should  be  used  to  each  volume  of  fruit  juice.  Sometimes 
a  saccharometer  is  used  to  determine  the  percentage  of  fruit 
solids  present  in  the  fruit  juice  and  to  determine  from  the  read- 
ing the  amount  of  sugar  necessary  to  combine  with  a  given 
quantity  of  juice  to  make  good  jelly  (Fig.  101).  Consider 
apple  juice  first  after  the  juice  has  been  extracted  from  the 
fruit  by  crushing,  heating,  and  straining;  cool  it  to  room  tem- 
perature. Pour  some  of  the  juice  into  a  slender  cylinder  which 
is  deep  enough  to  float  the  Brix  or  Balling  spindle.  Read  the 
figure  on  the  spindle  which  appears  at  the  surface  of  the  juice, 
and  if,  for  example,  the  reading  is  8  on  the  spindle,  then  thirteen 
ounces  of  sugar  will  be  the  proper  proportion  of  sugar  to 
combine  with  each  quart  of  juice  to  make  a  good  jelly. 

The  following  table  may  be  used  when  testing  apple  juice 
with  a  spindle  to  determine  the  amount  of  solids  in  the  solution 
and  the  amount  of  sugar  necessary  to  combine  with  it  to  make 
a  jelly.  Cool  to  room  temperature  before  taking  the  reading: 


Reading  of 
Brix  at  20° 

For  each  quart  of  juice  add 
sugar 

Centigrade 

Pounds 

Ounces 

5.0 

8 

5.5 

9 

6.0 

9.6 

6.5 

10.7 

7.0 

11.6 

7.5 

12.4 

8.0 

13.2 

8.5 

14.1 

9.0 

15.0 

9.5 

15.8 

10.0 

1                               .7 

This  table  is  arranged  for  juices  which  have  a  temperature 
of  20°  Centigrade  or  68°  Fahrenheit.     The  juices  should  never 


JELLY  1IAKING  179 

be  tested  immediately  upon  straining,  unless  they  have  cooled 
to  room  temperature. 

As  already  stated,  in  making  jellies  more  failures  result  from 
addition  of  too  much  sugar  to  the  juice  than  for  all  other  causes, 
and  if  the  amount  of  sugar  can  be  determined  success  is  almost 
sure.  Doctor  Straughn  has  constructed  tables  like  the  above, 
which  indicate  the  amount  of  sugar  to  be  added  to  juices  when 
their  density  is  known,  and  this  density  can  be  determined  by 
means  of  the  Brix  spindle  or  saccharometer.  The  use  of  the 
Brix  spindle  correctly  necessitates  the  use  of  the  table  con- 
structed for  this  purpose  to  transfer  the  Brix  percentage  density 
reading  into  the  amount  of  sugar  needed.  This  method  has  now 
been  simplified  by  Doctor  Straughn,  who  has  devised  an  instru- 
ment, called  a  jellometer,  with  direct  readings  in  ounces  of 
sugar  to  be  used  for  each  quart  of  the  juice,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  tables  (Fig.  102).  To  use  the  jellometer  it  is  only 
necessary  to  float  it  in  the  fruit  juice,  which  has  been  cooled  to 
room  temperature.  The  point  at  which  it  floats  indicates  the 
number  of  ounces  of  sugar  to  be  added. 

Quantity  of  Juice  Cooked  at  One  Time. — No  difficulty  should 
be  found  in  handling  eight  or  ten  glasses  at  one  time  if  every- 
thing for  the  complete  process  is  conveniently  arranged  before 
cooking  is  begun.  The  capacity  of  the  kettle  should  be  four 
times  as  great  as  the  quantity  of  juice  cooked. 

When  to  Add  the  Sugar. — The  time  for  adding  sugar  is  of 
importance  even  if  the  sugar  has  been  properly  proportioned 
to  the  juice  in  the  beginning.  There  is  no  single  trick  to  per- 
form that  will  assure  perfect  results  in  jelly  making,  but  a  good, 
uniform  product  may  easily  be  obtained  by  carefully  following 
the  general  principles  of  jelly  making  which  are  outlined.  The 
old  method  required  that  the  sugar  be  added  in  the  beginning 
of  the  process.  The  longer  sugar  is  boiled  with  a  weak  acid, 
such  as  we  have  in  fruit  juice  suitable  for  making  jelly,  the 
more  the  sugar  is  split  or  inverted  into  simple  sugars,  and  the 
longer  this  goes  on  the  less  danger  there  will  be  in  having  the 
sugar  crystallize  out.  Another  method  is  that  of  cooking  the 
juice  and  adding  the  sugar  near  the  end  of  the  process.  The 


180  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FIG.   102. — Jellometer  for  testing  fruit  juices  in  jelly  making. 


JELLY  MAKING 


181 


latter  method,  however,  is  not  so  good  as  the  first,  since,  if  the 
sugar  does  not  all  dissolve  and  mix  thoroughly  with  the  fruit 
juice,  some  of  the  sugar  used  is  likely  to  crystallize  out.  After 
the  jelly  stands  for  a  while  these  crystals  may  be  seen  through- 
out the  jelly.  Midway  between  these  extremes  we  might  choose 
a  happy  medium  by  adding  the  sugar  just  as  soon  as  the  juice 
boils.  Although  adding  cold  sugar -to  the  hot  juice  stops  the 
cooking  by  a  partial  cooling  of  the  juice,  there  is  no  real  virtue 


FIG.  103. — Making  strawberry  and  orange  pectin  jelly,  Walton  County,  Florida.  A. 
Grating  yellow  peel.  B.  Straining  juice.  C.  Passing  white  part  through  food  chopper. 
D.  Testing  for  finished  jelly.  E.  Pouring  jelly  into  glasses. 

in  heating  the  sugar.  The  prolongation  of  the  cooking,  if  there 
is  any,  is  less  trouble  than  heating  the  sugar  when  there  is  no 
appreciable  gain. 

Cooking  the  Jelly. — When  the  proper  amount  of  sugar  is 
determined,  allow  the  juice  to  boil  before  adding  it  (Fig.  103). 
Clarify  the  juice  by  skimming  it  before  the  addition  of  sugar. 
Add  the  sugar  gradually  to  the  boiling  juice,  stirring  until  it  is 
all  dissolved.  Cook  very  rapidly  to  keep  the  jelly  a  bright  color 
and  the  product  clear.  Skimming  the  juice  after  the  sugar  is 
added  is  not  a  good  practice  from  an  economical  standpoint. 


182  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

A  thermometer  will  aid  greatly  in  jelly  making.  If  placed 
in  the  cooking  juice  it  will  indicate  the  approach  of  the  jelly 
stage,  and  the  cooking  juice  will  not  need  to  be  watched  very 
closely  until  the  temperature  of  216°  to  217°  Fahrenheit  or 
102°  to  103°  Centigrade  is  reached.  After  this  the  juice  cooks 
very  rapidly  and  requires  constant  watching.  The  juice  for 
jelly  should  not  be  allowed  to  simmer.  All  jellies  should  be 
made  as  quickly  as  possible  .when  once  the  cooking  has  begun. 


FIG.  104  A. — First  test  shows  drops  of  syr 


FIG.  104  B. — Finished  test  shows  jelly  flaking  or  sheeting  from  the  paddle. 

By  long  cooking,  the  acid  affects  the  pectin  in  such  a  way  as  to 
cause  it  to  lose  some  of  its  jelly-making  power.  Long  cooking 
also  has  the  tendency  to  make  the  finished  product  dull  and 
darker  than  jelly  which  has  been  cooked  rapidly  over  a  hot  fire. 
Test  the  juice  to  determine  when  the  jelly  is  finished.  Take 
a  small  amount  of  juice  in  a  spoon  and  cool  it  by  gently  moving 
it  in  the  air  for  a  few  seconds  and  allow  it  to  drop  from  the  side 
of  the  spoon  or  wooden  paddle.  At  first  it  will  just  run  off  as 


JELLY  MAKING  183 

a  syrup;  then,  as  it  cooks,  the  drops  will  become  heavier,  and 
when  the  drops  run  together  and  slide  off  in  a  flake  or  sheet 
from  the  side  of  the  spoon,  leaving  the  edge  clean,  the  jelly  is 
finished  and  should  be  removed  from  the  fire  at  once.  Skim- 
ming while  cooking  the  juice  is  wasteful.  Be  careful  not  to 
break  the  scum  while  testing  the  juice  for  the  jelly  stage.  After 
a  good  jelly  test  is  obtained  and  the  vessel  is  removed  from  the 
fire  the  scum  may  be  removed  all  at  one  time  before  pouring 
the  jelly  into  the  containers.  It  is  very  necessary  at  this  point 
to  keep  a  cool  head  and  work  rapidly  so  that  the  jelly  will  not 
have  time  to  cool  in  the  pan  (Figs.  104 A  and  B). 

Pouring  the  Jelly  into  the  Glasses. — Jelly  should  be  poured, 
while  hot,  into  hot  sterilized  glasses.  Fill  the  glasses  full.  Little 
bubbles  collect  on  the  surface,  and  these  can  be  removed  in  a 
teaspoon  by  running  it  around  the  top  of  the  jelly.  If  possible, 
allow  the  jelly  to  stand  in  the  sun  as  it  cools.  When  it  is  firm 
the  jelly  will  have  shrunken,  leaving  a  space  for  melted  paraffin. 
Pour  a  layer  of  melted  paraffin  over  the  top  to  seal  it  from  the 
air  (Fig.  105).  The  paraffin  will  run  down  along  the  edge  and 
stick  more  securely  if  a  small  wooden  stick  is  carefully  run 
around  the  edge  of  the  jelly  after  paraffin  is*  poured  on.  If  the 
paraffin  runs  down  between  the  jelly  and  the  glass  for  about 
one-fourth  inch  it  will  not  be  so  easily  slipped  away  from  the 
jelly  as  it  is  when  simply  poured  over  the  top  in  a  thin  layer. 
Another  way  to  protect  the  jelly  is  sometimes  used.  A  circle  of 
paper  is  cut  to  fit  into  the  glass,  then  dipped  into  grain  alcohol 
or  brandy  and  placed  ov3r  the  jelly.  The  alcohol  or  brandy 
serves,  as  does  the  hot  paraffin,  to  kill  any  mold  that  might  have 
dropped  on  top  of  the  jelly  as  it  stood  to  cool. 

Covering  the  Glass. — Covering  the  glass  is  necessary  after 
the  paraffin  or  the  dipped  paper  circle  is  placed  on  top  of  the 
jelly.  Tie  paper  down  tightly  around  the  edge  of  the  glass  or 
put  a  tightly  fitting  cover  over  it. 

Labelling. — Place  small,  neatly  printed  labels  half  way  be- 
tween the  seams  of  the  glass  and  near  the  lower  edge.  The  label 
should  be  no  larger  than  necessary  to  print  the  required  in- 
formation  if  the  jelly  is  to  be  sold.  Too  muck  of  the  product 


184 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


is  hidden  when  a  large  label  is  used.  Generally  it  is  not  attractive 
to  use  brightly  colored  labels,  because  they  detract  from  the  color 
of  the  product. 

Storing  Jellies  (Fig.  106). — A  bright  light  will  cause  jellies 
to  fade  in  color  and  also  cause  them  to  ' l  weep ' ' ;  that  is,  leak 
out  and  spoil  the  label.  Keep  them  in  a  cool,  dark,  dry  place. 


FIG.    105. — A  coffee-pot  is  a  convenient  utensil  for  melting  and  pouring  the  paraffin. 


If  a  tender  jelly  is  handled  or  allowed  to  stand  for  several 
months  in  a  jar  which  is  not  hermetically  sealed,  it  is  very  apt 
to  "weep."  To  prevent  this  weeping,  commercial  concerns  her- 
metically seal  their  jelly  jars.  By  using  the  crimped  crown 
cap  and  the  hand-sealing  machine  illustrated  in  the  chapter  on 
"Fruit  Juices"  (p.  102)  jelly  glasses  may  easily  be  sealed  air- 
tight. When  the  jelly  is  to  be  sealed  i-n  this  manner  it  should 
first  be  allowed  to  cool  and  then  have  a  thin  layer  of  melted 


JELLY  MAKING 


185 


paraffin  or  a  circle  of  paper  which  has  been  dipped  into  grain 
alcohol  placed  over  the  top  before  crimping  on  the  cap. 

Fancy  Packs. — Fancy  packs  of  jelly  may  be  made  by  packing 
two  or  three  jellies  of  different  flavors  and  colors  in  one  glass. 
It  is  necessary  to  allow  the  first  layer  to  cool  before  adding  the 
second,  and  so  on.  Apple  juice  or  orange  pectin  may  be  used  for 
a  base  and  have  the  different  flavors  and  colors  added.  For 
instance,  jelly  can  be  made  of  cherry,  pineapple,  strawberry, 


FIG.  106. — A  few  good  glasses  of  jelly  ready  to  store. 

rhubarb,  and  other  fruits  by  adding  the  necessary  pectin  in  the 
form  of  apple  juice  or  orange  pectin.  A  mint  jelly  may  be  made 
by  coloring  either  apple  or  orange  pectin  jelly  green  with  a 
vegetable  coloring  matter  and  flavoring  it  with  the  fresh  mint 
or  a  very  few  drops  of  spirits  of  peppermint. 

Fancy  Jellies. — Fancy  jellies  can  be  made  from  non-pectin 
fruits  and  other  materials'  by  using  a  pectin  preparation  made 
from  the  orange  or  apple  and  combining  this  with  strawberry 


186  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

or  other  non-pectin  fruits  or  with  mint  and  other  flavors.  The 
non-pectin  fruits,  it  will  be  recalled,  include  cherries,  pineapples, 
rhubarb,  and  peaches.  The  use  of  one-half  of  the  orange  or 
apple  pectin  prepared  as  below,  and  one-half  of  a  non-pectin 
fruit,  will  give  satisfactory  results,  providing  a  jelly  with  the 
color  and  flavor  of  some  desired  fruit,  although  the  latter  will 
not  of  itself  make  jelly.  The  preparation  of  orange  pectin  is 
described  and  a  couple  of  sample  recipes  for  these  fancy  jellies 
are  given  (Fig.  107). 

Preparation  of  Orange  Pectin. — 

y^  pound   of  white  portion   or-  3  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon  juice 

ange-peel  6  cupfuls  of  cold  water 

Scrape  or  grate  the  yellow  from  the  peel  of  the  orange. 
Remove  the  remaining  white  portion  and  pass  it  through  a  food 
chopper.  Weigh,  and  for  each  half  pound  allow  three  cupfuls 
of  cold  water  and  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice  for  each  cup 
of  water.  Mix  thoroughly,  allow  to  stand  for  four  or  five  hours, 
then  boil  for  ten  minutes,  and  cool.  Add  another  three  cupfuls 
of  cold  water.  Bring  to  a  boil  and  let  stand  over  night.  Next 
morning  boil  for  five  minutes,  allow  to  cool,  place  in  a  flannel 
jelly-bag,  squeeze  it  to  remove  all  the  juice,  and  then  filter  the 
juice  through  a  clean  flannel  jelly-bag  without  pressing  it. 

This  pectin  may  be  used  as  a  foundation  in  making  jellies 
from  fruit  juices  which  do  not  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of 
pectin.  If  the  pectin  is  to  be  kept  for  use  later,  pour  it  into 
sterilized  jars  while  hot,  process  quart  jars  in  a  water-bath  at 
simmering  (180°  Fahrenheit)  for  thirty  minutes;  seal  and  store 
in  a  dark  place. 

Strawberry  and  Orange  Pectin  Jelly. — 

1  cupful  of  orange  pectin  1  cupful  of  strawberry  juice 

1  cupful  of  sugar 

Mix  the  pectin  with  the  berry  juice  and  bring  it  to  boiling, 
add  the  sugar,  and  continue  boiling  until  the  jelly  stage  is 
reached.  This  finishing  point  is  indicated  by  the  flaking  and 
sheeting  from  the  spoon.  Skim  after  removing  jelly  from  the 


JELLY  MAKING 


fire;  pour  immediately  into  hot  sterilized  jelly  glasses, 
and  cover  with  melted  paraffin. 


187 
Cool 


Mint  Jelly.— 

1  pint  of  orange  or  apple  pectin 
1  pint  of  sugar 


2  drops  of  oil  of  peppermint 
2  drops  of  green  vegetable  col- 
oring 


Heat  the  pectin  to  boiling,  add  the  sugar  gradually,  and 
continue  boiling  until  the  jelly  will  flake  from  the  side  of  a 
spoon.  At  this  point  add  carefully  two  drops  of  oil  of  pepper- 
mint, together  with  the  two  drops  of  green  vegetable  coloring 


FIG.   107. — Fancy  jellies. 

matter.  (This  vegetable  coloring  may  be  obtained  from  a  drug 
store.)  Stir  gently  and  pour  while  hot  into  sterilized  glasses. 
After  a  few  moments  the  scum  which  rises  to  the  top  may  be 
easily  removed  from  the  jelly  with  a  teaspoon.  When  cold,  pour 
hot  paraffin  over  it.  Place  sterilized  lids  over  the  jelly  glasses 
or  tie  a  circle  of  white  paper  over  each. 

Equal  parts  of  pectin  and  non-pectin  fruit  juices  combined, 
using  the  same  amount  of  sugar  as  pectin,  will  usually  be  the 
proper  proportion  to  use,  when  a  flavor  and  color  of  non-pectin 
fruit  are  desired  in  jelly. 


188  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRKSKRViNG 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  in  your  own  words  the  standard  for  jelly. 

2.  What  do  the  best  jelly-making  fruits  contain? 

3.  What  is  the  character  of  pectin?     What  is  the  effect  of  the  heat  of  the 

sun  upon  it?     What  effect  has  long  cooking  upon  it? 

4.  Describe  how  to  test  a  fruit  juice  for  the  approximate  amount  of  pectin 

present. 

5.  What  is  the  usual  mistake  in  jelly  making?     How  can  this  !><>  avoided? 

6.  How  should  jellies  be  cooked?     Why  is  this  necessary? 

7-.  Describe  how  to  determine  when  the  jelly  has  cooked  sufficiently. 
8.  What  is  a  satisfactory   method  of  sealing  jelly?     In  what  kind  of  a 
place  should  it  be  stored  ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Fox,  MINNIE  C.,  "Blue  Grass  Cook  Book,"   1904.     Published  by  Fox, 

Duffield  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $1.50. 

2.  GOLDTHWAITE,  N.  E.,  "  Principles  of  Jelly  Making,"  Food  Series  No.  3, 

vol.  1,  No.  15,  Cornell  Reading  Courses,  May,  1912.  Published  by 
the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

3.  GOLDTHWAITE,  N.  E.,  "  Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Jelly  Making,"  article 

published  by  the  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry, 
'vol.  1,  pp.  333-344.     June,  1909;    vol.  2,  pp.  457  to  462,  November, 
1910,  American  Chemical  Society,  Easton,  Pa.     $6  per  year. 

4.  GOLDTHWAITE,  N.  E.,  "  Principles  of  Jelly  Making,"  University  of  Illi- 

nois Bulletin  No.  31,  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

5.  HARRIS,   AGNES   ELLEN,   "Jellies,   Preserves,   and   Marmalades,"   Exten- 

sion Bulletin  No.  3,  State  College  for  Women.  Published  by  the  State 
College  for  Women,  Tallahassee,  Fla.,  June,  1915. 

6.  McKiMMON,   JANE   S.,   "  Strawberry,   Blackberry,   and   Raspberry  Jam," 

North  Carolina  Canning  Club  Recipes.  Published  by  the  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PICKLING 

THE  preservation  of  food  with  salt  or  vinegar,  either  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  spices  or  sugar,  is  commonly  known  as 
pickling.  The  predominating  flavor  determines  the  kind  of  pickle 
— sour  pickle,  sweet  pickle,  or  spiced  pickle.  Green  and  slightly 
unripe  fruits  and  vegetables  are  generally  used  for  pickling.  A 
great  variety  of  vegetables  and  fruits  may  be  kept  by  this  method. 
Among  the  most  common  vegetables  which  are  pickled  are  cucum- 
bers, tomatoes,  beets,  onions,  carrots,  martynias,  artichokes,  cab- 
bage, and  chayotes.1 

The  method  of  grating  horseradish  or  putting  it  through  a 
food  chopper  and  combining  it  with  sufficient  vinegar  to  moisten 
it  is  one  of  the  simplest  types  of  pickling.  Some  vegetables  give 
better  results  if  they  are  soaked  in  salt  water  over  night  or  until 
thoroughly  cured.  This  makes  the  tissue  firmer  and  extracts 
water  from  it.  Some  fruits  and  vegetables  require  this  special 
treatment,  while  others  need  only  to  be  parboiled  in  salt  water. 
By  either  of  these  methods  the  tissues  are  better  prepared  to 
absorb  the  flavored  vinegar  or  syrup. 

Utensils  to  Use  in  Pickle  Making. — Only  porcelain-lined  or 
granite-wear  kettles  should  be  used  when  cooking  pickles.  Acid 
will  attack  metal  utensils  and  they  should  not  be  used.  A  granite 
or  wooden  spoon  should  be  used  for  stirring.  A  perforated  agate 
ladle  is  a  convenient  utensil  for  lifting  the  pieces  of  pickle  from 
the  kettle.  Finished  pickles  should  be  packed  into  sterilized  jars 
or  crocks. 

Sweet  Pickles. — Among  the  fruits  especially  good  for  sweet 
pickles  are  peaches,  apples,  plums,  watermelon  and  cantaloupe 
rinds,  cherries,  grapes,  gooseberries,  figs,  and  pears. 

iThe  chayote  (Chayota  edulis)  is  rather  a  comparatively  new  vegetable. 
It  is  a  climbing  vine,  resembling  the  cucumber  in  growth,  although  it  is 
much  more  vigorous  and  prolific.  The  fruit  is  pear-shaped  and  somewhat 
corrugated,  with  a  single  flat  seed.  jgg 


190  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Mixed  Pickles. — Mixed  pickles  are  made  from  various  combi- 
nations of  such  vegetables  as  beans,  cauliflower,  onions,  small  ears 
of  corn  (two  or  three  inches  in  length),  cucumbers,  and  cabbage. 

Relishes. — Pickles  consisting  of  finely,  evenly  chopped  vege- 
tables are  known  as  relishes;  Chile  sauce,  chow-chow,  and  pica- 
lilli  are  often  so  classified. 

Chutney. — Chutney  is  a  hot  sweet  pickle  originated  in  India. 
There  are  a  number  of  other  condiments  made  in  many  ways 
that  belong  to  this  class  of  pickle.  Chutneys  are  of  Oriental 
origin.  They  are  served  with  curries,  cold  meats,  sausage,  and 
stews. 

Mangoes. — The  mango  is  a  fruit  believed  to  be  a  native  of 
southern  Asia,  but  it  is  now  grown  in  nearly  all  sub-tropical 
countries.  In  addition  to  use  as  a  fresh  fruit,  mango  forms  the 
basis  of  most  chutneys  of  East  India  type  and  is  also  canned  and 
other  wise  preserved.  The  mango  melon  is  a  small  round  melon 
with  yellow  skin  and  white  flesh.  It  is  cultivated  chiefly  for 
domestic  mango  pickling  and  preserving.  Often  small  green 
melons,  burr  gherkins,  and  peppers  are  stuffed  and  pickled. 
The  term  ' l  Mango ' '  is  popularly  used  for  stuffed  pickles. 

Ketchup  and  Sauces. — When  the  materials  to  be  pickled  are 
finely  chopped,  cooked,  and  strained,  and  the  resulting  product  is 
a  more  or  less  thick  fluid,  they  are  called  ketchups  or  sauces. 
Many  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but 
tomatoes  are  more  generally  used. 

Dill  Pickles. — In  making  dill  pickles  and  sauer-kraut  the  acid 
is  produced  by  fermentation  and  not  by  adding  vinegar.  The 
lactic  acid  bacteria  convert  the  sugar  present  in  these  vegetables 
into  lactic  acid  which  acts  as  the  preserving  agent.  The  dill  is 
added  for  the  sake  of  its  spicy  flavor. 

BRINING 

Large  quantities  of  vegetables  may  be  taken  care  of  during 
the  harvesting  season  by  brining  them  and  allowing  them  to  cure. 
They  may  be  finished  several  months  later  in  a  less  busy  season, 
and  when  vinegar,  sugar,  and  spices  are  likely  to  be  cheaper. 


PICKLING  191 

This  method  of  keeping  vegetables  has  been  practiced  since 
primitive  times.  Our  ancestors  saved  much  of  their  surplus  crop 
by  storing  it  away  in  brine.  Sometimes  this  material  kept  well ; 
often  it  did  not.  The  failure  was  attributed  to  bad  luck,  and  the 
reasons  for  it  were  unknown.  Tremendous  losses  in  the  spoilage 
of  pickles  in  factories  led  to  scientific  investigation  of  this  subject 
As  a  result  valuable  information  has  been  contributed  to  the  pub- 
lic. Otto  Rahn's  experiments  at  the  University  of  Michigan  are 
the  source  of  much  of  this  information. 

The  causes  of  spoilage  will  be  discussed  later.  The  different 
methods  used  in  brining  and  pickling  may  be  more  satisfactorily 
explained  by  the  use  of  a  single  product;  for  example,  the 
cucumber. 

PICKLING  THE  CUCUMBER 

Preparation. — It  is  not  necessary  to  wash  the  cucumbers 
before  putting  them  into  brine,  since  the  bacteria  on  the  outside 
of  the  vegetable  aid  in  the  process,  and  the  brine  pickles  are 
washed,  anyway,  before  being  eaten.  This  does  not  apply  in 
the  case  of  dill  pickles.  These  are  eaten  as  they  come  from  the 
crocks.  German  bacteriologists  recommend  that  a  little  whey 
from  sour  milk  be  put  into  the  pickle  barrel  to  hasten  the 
fermentation. 

Brine. — Soft  water  should  be  used  in  making  the  brine. 
•Water  containing  much  iron  or  lime  will  discolor  the  pickles. 
Put  the  cucumbers  into  brine  very  soon  after  they  are  gathered. 
A  good  measure  of  salt  is  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  spoil- 
age, but  salt  alone  is  not  enough.  The  strength  of  the  brine 
used  can  easily  be  determined  by  using  a  salometer — a  hydrom- 
eter or  spindle  which  will  show  the  density  or  strength  of  the 
brine  by  floating  in  the  liquid  (Fig.  108).  The  cucumbers  may 
be  put  down  in  a  45  degree  to  a  60  degree  brine.  The  salt 
draws  out  water  from  the  vegetable  tissues  and  toughens  them 
somewhat.  For  this  reason  the  weaker  brine  will  give  a 
better  texture  to  the  finished  product.  About  one  pound  nine 
ounces  of  salt  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water  will  cause  a  salt 
hydrometer  to  float  at  about  45  on  the  scale,  which  will  show  that 
it  is  a  45  degree  salt  solution.  The  cucumbers  should  be  weighted 


192 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


down  so  this  solution  will  completely  cover  them.     A 
cheesecloth  may  be  placed  over  the  top  to  exclude  the 
dust  and  at  the  same  time  admit  air. 
BRINES 


Approximate, 
percentage  of 
solution 

Weight  of  salt 

Quantity  of 
water 

Degrees, 
salometer 

1 

2      ounces 

6  quarts 

4 

2 

4      ounces 

6  quarts 

8 

3 

6      ounces 

6  quarts 

12 

4 

8      ounces 

6  quarts 

16 

5 

10      ounces 

6  quarts 

20 

6 

12^  ounces 

6  quarts 

24 

7 

143^  ounces 

6  quarts 

28 

8 

16^  ounces 

6  quarts 

32 

9 

1  pound  3  ounces 

6  quarts 

36 

10 

1  pound  6  ounces 

6  quarts 

40 

15 

2%    pounds 

6  quarts 

60 

20 

3      pounds 

6  quarts 

80 

25 

4      pounds 

6  quarts 

100 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  understood  that  the  figures 
representing  the  percentage  of  salt  in  a  solution  is  obtained 
by  dividing  the  number  of  degrees  which  are  read  on  a 
J  X  salometer  by  4;  for  instance,  to  make  a  68°  salt  solution  we 
have  to  dissolve  68  divided  by  4,  or  17  parts  of  salt  in  83 
parts  of  water. 

Grading. — Cucumbers  should  be  graded  according 
to  size,  as  follows  (Fig.  109)  : 

Size  1 — 1  to  2  inches — Small  gherkins. 
Size  2 — 2  to  3  inches— Small  pickles. 
Size  3 — 3  to  4  inches — Medium  pickles. 
Size  4 — 4  inches  and  over — Large  pickles. 

Bacteria  Necessary. — Many  kinds  of  bacteria  are 
present  on  the  surface  of  the  cucumbers,  especially  if 
a  little  dirt  adheres  to  them.    Among  the  other  organ- 
isms there  are  a  considerable  number  of  lactic  acid 
bacteria.    The  presence  of  salt  and  lack  of  air  in  the 
brine  prevent  most  of  the  other  bacteria  from  grow- 
ing;  the  lactic   acid   organisms,   however,   not  being 
FIG.  IDS.     restrained  to  as  great  a  degree  as  the  other  types  grow 
Brine  hydrom-  upon  the  substances  given  off'by  the  shrinking  of  the 


PICKLTNG 


193 


13 


194  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

cucumbers  in  the  salt  solution  and  convert  the  sugar  into  lactic 
acid  and  gas.2  The  gas  escapes  and  can  be  seen  in  little  bubbles 
on  the  top  of  the  brine.  The  bubbles  indicate  that  fermentation 
is  taking  place.  The  acid  turns  the  grass  greenness  of  the 
vegetable  to  an  olive  green,  which  color  is  recognized  as  being 
the  correct  tint  for  pickles.  "When  the  frothing  ceases  the  acid 
present  in  the  brine  is  strong  enough  to  kill  most  of  the  bacteria 
in  the  liquid,  and  from  this  time  on  the  pickle  brine  should  be 
covered,  as  explained  below. 

Spoilage  Caused  by  Other  Bacteria. — It  is  important,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  process,  to  keep  the  vegetable  being  pickled 
weighted  below  the  surface  of  the  brine.  If  pieces  protrude,  the 
so-called  potato  bacillus  will  grow  upon  the  exposed  surfaces  and 
cause  spoilage.  They  grow  rapidly  and  may  do  great  damage  in 
a  very  short  time.  The  addition  of  a  little  vinegar  will  destroy 
these  bacteria  if  they  are  discovered  before  much  damage  is 
done. 

Test  for  Acid. — To  determine  when  the  brine  reaches  the 
acid  stage,  put  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  into  it.  If  the  litmus 
paper  turns  red,  showing  the  presence  of  acid,  all  air  should  be 
excluded  from  the  brine.  This  prevents  the  formation  of  yeast 
scum,  which  causes  the  spoiling  of  the  pickles. 

Preventing  Scum  Yeast. — This  is  not  difficult.  Simply  skim- 
ming the  yeast  off  is  not  sufficient,  because  it  will  grow  again 
unless  the  container  is  sealed  air-tight  immediately  after  the  brine 
tests  acid.  The  very  fact  that  yeast  grows  a  scum  proves  that  it 
must  have  air  in  order  to  live.  It  cannot  endure  hot  sunlight, 
either.  The  bacteria  which  form  the  acid  in  the  brine  have  just 
the  opposite  characteristics.  They  grow  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crock  or  jar,  where  they  avoid  the  air  and  where  there  is  no  light. 

Excluding  the  Air. — It  is  necessary  to  exclude  air,  because 
air  may  carry  in  with  it  yeast,  and  the  scum,  which  might  form, 
would  cause  the  pickles  to  soften  and  spoil.  So  soon  as  the  acid 
test  is  obtained  take  care  to  weight  the  cucumbers  down  under  the 

2  Most  of  the  gas  is  caused  by  the  respiration  or  breathing  of  the  living 
tissue  cells  of  the  cucumbers;  a  small  amount,  however,  is  produced  by 
certain  types  of  lactic  acid  bacteria. 


PICKLING 


195 


brine,  cover  the  brine  with  a  piece  of  cheesecloth,  and  then  pour 
on  a  thick  layer  of  melted  paraffin.  Place  the  lids  on  the  crocks 
or  jars  and  wrap  a  strip  of  cheesecloth,  dipped  in  hot  melted  par- 
affin, around  where  the  lid  and  the  top  of  the  container  meet,  let- 
ting the  paraffin  harden  and  seal  the  opening.  The  paraffin  is 
inexpensive  and  can  be  remelted  and  used  year  after  year.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  pour  it  over  the  brine  until  fermentation 
has  ceased,  otherwise  the  gases  arising  from  the  brine  will  crack 
the  paraffin  and  make  remelting  necessary.  The  containers  should 
not  be  disturbed  after  they  have  been  so  sealed.  One  important 
characteristic  of  this  scum  is  that  it  will  not  grow  in  the  absence 


FIG.   110. — Sealing  a  crock  with  a  band  of  cheesecloth  dipped  into  boiling  paraffin. 

of  air,  therefore  the  exclusion  of  air  from  the  surface  will  entirely 
prevent  the  scum  from  forming  (Fig.  110). 

Brining  in  Barrels. — In  treating  large  quantities,  secure  tight 
kegs  or  barrels.  These  may  have  to  be  charred  and  cleansed  well. 
It  is  possible  in  brining  vegetables  to  commence  with  a  lighter 
brine,  but  they  should  probably  be  packed  in  a  brine  not  lighter 
than  60  degrees.  As  soon  as  the  brine  tests  acid,  the  barrels 
can  be  bunged  up  tightly  to  keep  out  all  air.  Since  the  brine  is 
likely  to  settle  and  become  strong  at  the  bottom  and  weak  at  the 
top,  it  is  best  to  turn  the  casks  or  barrels  over  every  week  for  the 
first  few  weeks. 


196  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

When  these  pickles  are  open  they  should  be  firm,  good  olive- 
green  color  and  in  fine  condition.  The  great  secret  of  pickle-mak- 
ing lies  in  bringing  about  acid  fermentation  quickly,  and,  after 
this  is  done,  in  preserving  the  acidity  of  the  brine  by  covering 
tightly. 

SPICED  CUCUMBER  PICKLE 

Open  the  containers,  weigh  and  freshen  the  cured  cucumbers 
by  allowing  them  to  stand  for  an  hour  or  two  in  clear,  cold  water. 
It  is  believed  that  the  pickles  are  improved  in  texture  (made  crisp 
and  firm)  by  dropping  them  into  a  lime  bath  (one  ounce  of  lime 
to  one  gallon  of  water)  for  about  two  hours.  The  lime  used  is 
calcium  oxide  and  can  be  obtained  from  drug  stores.  The  color 
may  be  intensified  by  neutralizing  the  acid  with  a  soda  bath  (one 
teaspoonful  of  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water).  If  either  of  these 
baths  is  used  it  is  necessary,  immediately  afterwards,  to  plunge 
the  cucumbers  into  clear,  cold  water  for  one  hour.  Drain  well 
and  place  in  a  granite  kettle  which  has  been  lined  with  spinach 
or  grape  leaves,  cover  the  cucumbers  with  the  leaves,  and  pour 
over  them  boiling  water,  allow  to  stand  in  these  leaves  until  thor- 
oughly cold,  drain  well,  and  cover  with  a  scalding  vinegar  solu- 
tion (one  pint  of  vinegar  to  three  pints  of  water).  Cool  quickly 
and  allow  them  to  stand  for  three  or  four  hours.  By  so  treating 
with  grape  or  spinach  leaves  a  better  green  color  may  be  obtained 
in  the  finished  product.  Place  cucumbers  in  a  fresh  vinegar  bath 
(two  pints  of  vinegar  to  two  pints  of  water) .  Allow  them  to  stand 
until  next  morning. 

Spiced  Sour  Pickle. — If  a  spiced  pickle  is  desired,  allow  spices 
in  the  following  proportion  to  each  two-pound  lot  of  cucumbers : 

1  ounce  of  stick  cinnamon  6  cupfuls  of  the  last  vinegar  so- 

%  ounce  of  cloves  lution  in  which  the  cucumbers 

%   ounce  of  dried  ginger  root 3  have  been  standing 

Boil  vinegar  and  spices  together  for  five  minutes,  pour  over 

3  Dried  ginger  root,  or  race  ginger,  can  be  obtained  from  the  drug  store. 
The  white  coating  on  the  ginger  is  due  to  the  lime  water  in  which  it  has 
been  dipped  after  drying  to  prevent  insects  from  eating  it.  The  coating  is 
carbonate  of  lime.  This  race  ginger  should  be  dropped  into  boiling  water 
and  drained  before  adding  it  to  the  syrup. 


PICKLING 


197 


" 


?3 

E.E2. 


o 


198  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

the  drained  cucumbers,  allow  to  cool,  and  then  pack  into  jars  and 
pour  the  spiced  vinegar  over  them. 

Spiced  Sweet  Pickles. — If  a  sweet  pickle  is  desired,  make  a 
syrup  of  the  six  cupfuls  of  vinegar  solution  and  one  and  one-half 
pounds  of  sugar  and  cook  together  with  spices  for  fifteen  min- 
utes, pour  over  the  cucumbers,  and  allow  to  cool  over  night.  Next 
morning  drain  the  spiced  syrup  from  the  cucumbers,  boil  for  ten 
minutes,  and  again  pour  over  the  cucumbers,  stand  for  two  hours, 
then  boil  together  with  the  pickles  until  they  become  bright  and 
clear  (about  ten  minutes),  cool  quickly  in  a  covered  pan,  and 
when  cold  arrange  the  cucumbers  attractively  in  jars  and  pour 
over  them  the  strained  spiced  syrup. 

Cucumber  Sweet  Meats. — An  attractive  pack  may  be  made 
by  slicing  the  sweet  pickled,  medium-sized  cucumbers  before 
packing.  Cut  slices  one-half  inch  thick,  also  cut  a  small  circle 
from  the  center  of  each  slice.  Place  a  raisin  or  red  cherry  in  the 
center  for  a  garnish,  arrange  uniformly  in  the  jars,  strain  the 
syrup  in  which  the  pickles  have  been  plumping,  and  pour  over 
the  cucumbers  in  the  jars,  paddle  to  remove  air  bubbles,  seal  and 
process  (Fig.  111). 

Plain  Cucumber  Pickle. — After  washing  the  brine  from  the 
cured  cucumbers,  allow  them  to  stand  in  fresh,  cold  water  for 
three  hours.  Drain  and  cover  with  a  weak  solution  of  vinegar 
and  allow  them  to  stand  for  two  or  three  hours.  Put  in  kettle : 

1  quart  of  vinegar  1   pound  of  bro\\  n  sugar 

V4   cupful  of  whole  black  pepper  2  tablespoonfuls  of  cloves 

1  or  2  pods  of  red  pepper  1  tablespoon ful  of  mace 

Boil  for  five  minutes  and  pour  over  the  cucumbers  which  have 
been  drained  from  the  first  vinegar.  This  amount  is  for  one  gallon 
of  pickle.  Pack  into  jars,  cover  with  the  spiced  vinegar,  and 
process  to  seal  air-tight. 

Cucumber  Slices. — Select  medium-sized  cucumbers.  Peel 
and  slice  thinly.  To  each  gallon  of  slices  sprinkle  one  cup  of  salt. 
Let  stand  for  twelve  hours ;  drain  out  the  salt  water ;  drop  slices 
into  glass  jars,  cover  with  pure,  cold  cider  vinegar,  seal  and 
process  in  water-bath  for  fifteen  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit 
(simmering). 


PICKLING  199 

Spiced  Cucumber  Salad. — 

Vegetables  Spiced  vinegar 

5  pounds    of    sliced    cucumbers  1  quart  of  vinegar 

(about  2  dozen)  %  cupful  of  sugar 

i/2  cupful  of  chopped  onion  1  tablespoonful     each     of     salt, 

2  cupfuls   of   sweet  red   pepper  powdered    ginger,    and    mus- 

( chopped)  tard  seed 

1  cupful  of  sweet  green  pepper  1  tablespoonful    each    of    whole 

(chopped)  pepper,    celery    seed,    cloves, 

cinnamon,  and  allspice 

Mix  the  cucumber  and  onion  and  sprinkle  alternate  layers 
with  salt,  using  three-quarter  cupful  for  this  lot.  Let  stand  over 
night.  Put  peppers  in  brine  (one  cupful  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of 
water)  over  night.  Next  morning  drain  vegetables  and  freshen 
for  one  to  two  hours  in  clear,  cold  water. 

Put  all  whole  spices  in  cheesecloth  bag,  except  the  celery  seed 
and  mustard  seed,  which  are  put  in  loose.  Add  spices  to  the 
vinegar  and  boil  for  five  minutes.  Drain  the  vegetables  well  and 
pour  the  hot  spiced  vinegar  over  them.  Let  stand  twenty-four 
hours.  Pack,  distributing  the  pepper  well  and  flattening  some  of 
the  cucumber  slices  against  the  face  of  each  jar.  Fill  jars  with 
same  vinegar  and  paddle  well  to  remove  all  bubbles.  Garnish 
with  strips  of  red  pepper  or  pieces  of  spice.  Process  pint  jars  for 
fifteen  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering). 

Sweet  Pickled  Cucumbers  and  Red  Peppers. — 

12  sound  cucumbers  1  teaspoonful  of  black  pepper 

8  sweet  red  peppers  1  teaspoonful  of  celery  salt 

1  cupful  of  brown  sugar  1  teaspoonful  of  ground  cloves 

1  teaspoonful  of  salt  1  teaspoonful  of  allspice 
i  pint  of  vinegar 

Cut  the  cucumbers  in  slices  one  inch  thick.  Remove  the  seed 
sacks  from  the  peppers,  and  cut  peppers  lengthwise  in  strips  one 
inch  wide.  Place  alternate  layers  of  each  in  a  preserving  kettle. 
Sprinkle  one-half  cupful  of  salt  over  them,  cover  with  cold  water, 
and  let  stand  four  hours.  Strain  and  wash  thoroughly  in  cold 
water  to  remove  the  brine ;  now  put  the  cucumbers  and  peppers 
back  into  the  preserving  kettle,  mix  together  the  sugar  and  sea- 
sonings, add  to  pickle  mixture  with  vinegar,  and  cover  and  cook 


200 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


until  tender,  stirring  slowly  and  often.  It  will  take  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes.  Pack  into  jars  and  process  as  for  spiced  cucum- 
ber salad. 

Rummage  Pickle. — 
2  quarts  of  green  tomatoes 

1  quart  of  ripe  tomatoes 

2  bunches  of  celery 

4  medium-sized  onions 


2  sweet  green  peppers 
2  sweet  red  peppers 
1  quart  of  small  green  cucum- 
bers 


4  tablespoonfuls  of  salt 
1  quart  of  vinegar 
1  pound  of  brown  sugar 
1  tablespoonful  of  mustard 
1  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 
1  small  hot  red  pepper 


Put  the  vegetables  through  a  food  chopper,  sprinkle  with  one- 
half  cupful  of  salt,  and  allow  to  stand  over  night.  Drain  well 
the  next  morning  and  mix  thoroughly  with  all  ingredients.  Allow 


FIG.  112. — Preparation  of  vegetables  for  mixed  pickles. 

to  stand  for  from  four  to  five  hours.    Pack  into  jars,  process,  and 
seal. 

MIXED  PICKLES 

Mixed  Pickles.— 

3  large  heads  of  cabbage 

1  quart  of  vinegar 

2  pounds  of  sugar 

i/2  ounce  each  of  cloves,  cinna- 
mon, allspice  and  macQ 


1  peck  ot  green  tomatoes 

1  dozen  medium-sized  onions 

2  dozen  cucumbers 

1  dozen  green  peppers 


PICKLING  201 

Chop  them  separately  and  very  fine.  Mix  all  together  and  put 
in  alternate  layers  of  the  mixture  and  salt.  Let  stand  over  night. 
Then  squeeze  dry  and  cover  with  cold  vinegar.  Let  it  stand 
twenty-four  hours  and  squeeze  as  before.  Mix  vinegar  with 
spices,  add  sugar,  boil  for  five  minutes,  and  pour  over  the  chopped 
vegetable.  Allow  to  stand  for  several  hours.  Pack  in  jars,  gar- 
nish with  strips  of  red  pepper,  cover  with  the  spiced  vinegar,  and 
process  (Figs.  112  and  113). 


Green  Tomato  Pickle. — 

1  gallon  of  green  tomatoes 

l/2  dozen  large  onions 

3  cupfuls  of  brown  sugar 

%  lemon 

3  pods  of  red  pepper 

3  cupfuls  of  vinegar 


tablespoonful  of  whole  cloves 

tablespoonful  of  allspice 

tablespoonful    of    celery    seed 

(crushed) 

tablespoonful  of  mustard  seed 

tablespoonful  of  ground  mus- 


1  tablespoonful  of  whole  black  tard 

pepper 

Slice  the  tomatoes  and  onions  thin.  Sprinkle  over  them  one- 
half  cupful  of  salt  and  let  stand  over  night  in  a  crock  or  enamel 
vessel.  Tie  the  pepper,  cloves,  allspice,  and  celery  seed  in  a  cheese- 
cloth bag.  Slice  the  lemon  and  chop  two  pepper  pods  very  fine. 
Drain  the  tomato  and  onion  well.  Add  all  seasoning  except  one 
pepper  pod  to  the  vinegar,  then  add  the  tomato  and  onion.  Cook 
for  one-half  hour,  stirring  gently  at  intervals  to  prevent  burning. 
Remove  spice-bag  to  prevent  darkening  product.  Pack  in  pint 
jars  and  garnish  with  slender  strips  of  the  red  pepper,  placing 
them  vertically  on  the  opposite  sides  of  each  jar.  Process  for 
fifteen  minutes. 

Mustard  Pickle. — 

Vegetables  Dressing 

1  pint    of    whole    small    cucum-  1  quart  of  vinegar 

bers  4  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 

1  pint  of  sliced  cucumbers  1  cupful  of  brown  sugar 

1   pint  of  small  whole  onions  3  tablespoonfuis     of     powdered 
1  cupful  of  string  beans  mustard 

3  sweet  green  peppers  y2  tablespoonful  of  turmeric 

3  sweet  red  peppers  1  teaspoonful     of     celery     seed 
1  pint  of  green  fig  tomatoes  or  (crushed) 

1  pint  of  cauliflower 


202  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FIG.   113. — A  fancy  pack  of  mixed  pickles. 


PICKLING 


203 


Cut  all  vegetables  before  measuring — tomatoes  into  halves, 
cucumbers  into  slices,  string  beans  into  one  and  one-half  inch 
lengths,  diagonally  or  on  the  bias,  and  chop  peppers.  All  vege- 
tables should  be  tender,  and  the  whole  cucumbers  not  longer  than 
two  and  one-half  inches. 

Put  all  vegetables  into  brine  over  night,  then  freshen  in  clear 


FIG.    114. — Packing  pickles  with  paddles.      (Heinz  Company.) 


water  for  two  hours.  Let  these  vegetables  stand  in  liquor  of  one- 
half  vinegar  and  one-half  water  for  fifteen  minutes,  and  then 
scald  in  same  liquor. 

To  make  mustard  dressing,  rub  all  the  dry  ingredients  together 
until  smooth,  then  add  the  hot  vinegar  slowly,  stirring  to  make 
smooth  paste.  Cook  over  pan  of  water,  stirring  carefully,  until 


204 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


the  sauce  thickens.  Then  drain  the  vegetables  thoroughly  and 
pour  the  mustard  dressing  over  them  while  hot.  Mix  well  and 
pack  into  jars.  Process  pint  jars  for  twenty  minutes  at  180° 
Fahrenheit  (simmering)  (Fig.  114). 


RELISHES 


Dixie  Relish. — 

1  quart  of  chopped  cabbage 
1  pint  of  chopped  white  onion 
1  pint    of    chopped    sweet    red 

pepper 
1  pint  of  chopped   sweet  green 

pepper 
5  tablespoonfuls  of  salt 


4  tablespoonfuls      of      mustard 

seed 
2  tablespoonfuls  of  celery   seed 

(crushed) 

%  cupful  of  sugar 
1  quart  of  cider  vinegar 


Soak  the  pepper  in  brine  (one  cupful  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of 
water)  for  twenty- four  hours.  Freshen  in  clear,  cold  water  for 
one  or  two  hours.  Drain  well,  remove  seeds  and  coarse  white  sec- 


FIG.    115. — Making  Dixie  relish  and  stuffing  pepper  mangoes. 

tions.  Chop  separately,  and  measure  the  chopped  cabbage,  pep- 
pers, and  onions  before  mixing.  Add  spices,  sugar,  and  vinegar. 
Let  stand  over  night  covered  in  a  crock  or  enamelled  vessel.  Pack 
in  small  sterilized  jars  (Fig.  115). 

When  ready  to  pack,  drain  the  vinegar  off  the  relish  in  order 


p 

00  >> 

M 

II 

»   B 

I? 


PICKLING  205 

that  the  jar  may  be  well  packed.  Pack  the  relish  in  the  jars, 
pressing  it  carefully ;  then  pour  over  it  the  vinegar  which  was 
drained  off.  Paddle  the  jar  thoroughly,  to  get  every  bubble  out, 
and  allow  the  vinegar  to  displace  all  air  spaces.  Garnish  each 
jar  with  two  slender  strips  of  red  pepper.  Place  these  strips  ver- 
tically on  the  seams  in  the  jar  on  opposite  sides.  Cap,  clamp,  and 
process  for  fifteen  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering). 

Pepper  Relish. — Take  one  dozen  sweet  green  peppers  and 
one  dozen  sweet  red  peppers,  and  add  three  large  onions,  chopped 
fine.  Cover  with  boiling  water  and  let  stand  ten  minutes,  drain, 
cover  again,  and  let  come  to  a  boil.  Then  let  stand  again.  Drain 
dry  and  add  three  tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  two  pints  of  vinegar, 
and  two  cups  of  granulated  sugar.  Cook  fifteen  minutes  and  pack 
in  jars. 

Corn  Relish. — 

1  dozen  ears  of  corn  1  cupful  of  sugar 

1  head  of  cabbage  2  tablespoonfuls  of  mustard 

3  sweet  red  peppers  1  tablespoonful  of  salt 

3  sweet  green  peppers  1  tablespoonful  of  celery  salt 
1  quart  of  vinegar 

Blanch  corn  for  two  minutes  and  drop  into  a  cold  bath  for  a 
few  seconds  before  cutting  from  cob.  Cook  all  together  for 
twenty  minutes.  Pack  into  sterilized  jars,  seal,  and  process. 

Uncooked  Tomato  Relish. — 

i/2  peck  of  ripe  tomatoes  2  teaspoonfuls  of  celery  seed 

Tquart  of  cider  vinegar  V2  teaspoonful  of  red  pepper 

6  green  peppers  1  teaspoonful  of  ground  cloves 

6   sweet  red  peppers  4  teaspoonfuls  of  mustard  seed 

4  medium-sized  onions  (yellow) 

1/2  cupful  of  chopped  cabbage  %  cupful  of  salt 

1  cupful  of  sugar 

Scald  and  peel  tomatoes,  chop  all  ingredients  fine,  add  season- 
ings, and  mix  well.  Add  the  vinegar  and  allow  to  stand  over 
night.  Next  morning  pack  cold  into  small  sterilized  jars,  seal,  and 
process. 


206  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Sweet  Pepper  Chow-chow. — 

3  pecks  of  sweet  red  peppers  %  peck  of  onions 
1  cupful  of  grated  horseradish                 3  cupfuls  of  sugar 

5  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  3  ounces     of     celery     seed 

4  ounces  of  mustard  seed  (crushed) 

y2  tablespoonful  of  black  pepper  1  teaspoonful  of  cloves 

3  teaspoonfuls  of  cinnamon  1  teaspoonful  of  allspice 

1  gallon  of  (60-grain)  vinegar  2  teaspoonfuls  of  ground  ginger 

Sixty-grain  vinegar  is  a  commercial  term  for  expressing  the 
acidity  of  the  vinegar.  Its  equivalent,  expressed  in  percentage, 
would  be  6  per  cent  acetic  acid. 

Chop  peppers  and  onions,  mix  all  ingredients,  and  cook  over  a 
slow  fire  for  three  hours.  This  quantity  will  fill  fifteen  pint  jars. 
This  relish  can  be  improved  by  adding  tabasco  sauce  to  suit  the 
taste. 

CHUTNEYS 

Hot  Sweets  to  Serve  with  Curries,  Cold  Meats,  Sausage,  and  Stews 

B.  S.  Chutney. — This  chutney  is  packed  in  red  and  yellow 
bands  in  the  jars.  These  colors  represent  the  banner  of  Spain, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  called  Banner  Spain  or  B.  S.  Chutney. 

Red  part  Yellow  part 

2  pounds  of  sweet  Spanish  Pi-  1  pint  of  small  yellow  fig  toma- 
miento  or  2  No.  1  cans  of  Pi-  toes  (preserved)  or 

miento  1  pint  of  gingered  watermelon 

1  pound  of  sugar  rind  or 

Juice  of  4  lemons  1  pint      of     gingered      chayote 

2  hot  peppers  sweet  pickle 

Red  Part. — Peel  the  peppers  according  to  the  instructions 
given  for  canning.  Chop  sweet  and  hot  peppers  together,  add 
sugar  and  lemon  juice,  and  let  stand  in  an  enamelled  vessel  or 
crock  for  twelve  hours.  Drain  off  the  liquor  and  allow  it  to  sim- 
mer for  ten  minutes.  Pour  it  over  the  peppers  again  and  let  stand 
for  four  hours.  Simmer  the  liquor  again  for  fifteen  minutes, 
allowing  the  peppers  to  remain  in  while  simmering. 

Yellow  Part. — Use  one  pint  of  preserved  yellow  tomatoes, 
one  pint  of  chopped  gingered  watermelon  rind,  or  one  pint  of 
chayote  sweet  pickle.  The  preserved  yellow  tomatoes  should  be 


PICKLING  207 

kept  as  nearly  whole  as  possible.  If  the  gingered  watermelon  rind 
or  chayote  is  used  it  should  be  chopped  or  cut  into  small,  uniform 
pieces  that  will  pack  easily. 

A  ten-ounce,  vase-shaped  hermetic  jar  is  an  attractive  package 
for  this  product.  In  packing,  place  the  heavier  color — red — at  the 
bottom  in  a  one-inch  layer ;  then  place  a  one-inch  layer  of  yellow. 
Continue  in  this  manner  until  the  jar  is  neatly  filled.  Combine 
the  liquors  and  boil  five  minutes,  strain,  and  pour  it  over  the  con- 
tents. Paddle  to  remove  air  bubbles.  Cap,  clamp,  and  process 
for  ten  minutes. 

The  small  yellow  fig  tomato  used  in  the  chutney  recipe  is  the 
variety  which  may  be  used  for  green  tomato  pickle  and  whole 
ripe-tomato  preserves. 

Apple  Chutney. — 

1  pound  of  green  sour  apples  2  ounces  of  race  ginger  root 

1  pound  of  button  onions  4  ounces   of   Chile  peppers    (or 

1  pound  of  raisins  any  hot  peppers) 

1  pound  of  soft  brown  sugar  8  ounces  of  salt 

1  quart  of  cider  vinegar  1  tablespoonful    of    celery    seed 

1  clove  of  garlic  (crushed) 

Put  the  onions  and  salt  and  one  cup  of  water  in  a  bowl  and 
cover.  Renew  this  bath  each  morning  for  two  days. 

Pare,  core,  and  slice  the  apples,  soak  with  the  other  ingredients 
in  a  pint  of  cider  vinegar  for  two  days,  add  onions,  and  put 
through  a  food  chopper.  Combine  with  another  pint  of  vinegar 
and  boil  until  the  apples  are  tender.  Pack  in  small  jars,  seal, 
and  process. 

MANGOES 

Stuffed  Pepper  Mango. — Mango  peppers  are  mild,  sweet, 
yellow,  and  waxy  in  appearance.  They  are  highly  esteemed  for 
pickling.  Soak  sweet  peppers  in  brine  (one  cupful  of  salt  to  one 
gallon  of  water)  for  twenty-four  hours.  When  ready  to  stuff, 
take  from  brine,  rinse  in  fresh  water,  carefully  cut  a  circle  off  the 
top  of  each  pepper,  and  save  same,  to  be  placed  on  peppers  after 
stuffing.  Remove  the  seeds  and  white  sections.  Soak  in  clear, 
cold  water  for  one  or  two  hours.  Drain  carefully.  Stuff  with 


208  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Dixie  relish  (p.  204),  being  careful  not  to  press  it  in  too 
tightly.  Place  top  on  the  pepper  and  make  secure  by  one  or  two 
stitches  or  by  pinning  cap  in  place  with  two  or  three  wooden 
toothpicks.  Pack  as  many  stuffed  peppers  as  can  be  placed  in 
the  jar  without  crushing.  Then  fill  the  jar  to  overflowing  with  a 
spiced  vinegar.  Process  for  fifteen  minutes  in  quart  jars. 

Spiced  Vinegar. — 

V-2  gallon  of  vinegar  1%  tablespoonfuls    of    mustard 

%  cupful  of  grated  horseradish  seed 

iy2  tablespoonfuls    of    celery  1  tablespoonful  of  salt 

seed  (crushed)  1   tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 
1  cupful  of  sugar 

Cloves,  nutmeg,  and  grated  onion  may  be  added  if  desired. 

Green  Mango  Pickles. — Use  tiny  green  nutmeg  cantaloupes 
and  cure  in  brine  as  for  cucumbers.  When  cured,  soak  the  man- 
goes in  cold  water  for  two  days ;  then  scald  in  kettle  lined  with 
spinach  or  grape  leaves.  Cool,  drain,  and  boil  for  fifteen  minutes 
in  weak  vinegar.  Drain  and  cover  them  with  the  second  spiced 
vinegar  for  a  week.  After  that,  take  the  seed  from  them  and  fill 
them  with  the  following  spices : 

1  pound    of    ginger,    soaked    in  1  ounce     of     celery      seed 

brine  a  day  or  two,  until  soft  (crushed) 

enough  to  slice  1  ounce  of  mace 

1  ounce  of  ground  black  pepper  %  ounce  of  cloves 

1  ounce  of  allspice  1  cupful  of  grated  horseradish 

%  ounce  of  turmeric  4  ounces  of  white  mustard  seed 

14  pound  of  garlic,  soaked   for  4  ounces  of  yellow  mustard  seed 

a  day  or  two  in  brine,  then 
dried 

A  pint  of  chopped  sweet  pickles  or  preserved  watermelon  rind 
will  improve  the  flavor  and  texture  of  this  mixture  for  the  filling. 

Bruise  all  the  spices  and  mix  with  one  teacupful  of  salad  oil. 
To  each  mango  add  one  teaspoonful  of  brown  sugar.  This  mix- 
ture will  fill  four  dozen  mangoes,  having  chopped  up  some  of  the 
broken  ones  to  mix  with  the  filling.  Tie  them  or  pin  together  with 
wooden  toothpicks,  pack  in  jars,  and  cover  with  sweet  vinegar, 
allowing  one  pound  of  brown  sugar  for  each  pint  of  the  spiced 
vinegar  in  which  the  melons  soaked.  Seal  and  process. 


PICKLING  209 

Spiced  Cucumber  Mango. — Select  large  cucumbers  and  pre- 
pare them  as  for  spiced  cucumbers,  and  allow  them  to  stand  for 
about  a  week.  Slice  a  cap  from  the  stem  end  and  scoop  out  the 
center  of  the  pickle,  fill  with  Dixie  relish  (p.  204),  replace  the 
cap,  and  fasten  with  wooden  toothpicks.  Pack  into  jars,  cover 
with  spiced  vinegar  (p.  208),  seal,  and  process. 

Sweet  Mango. — Large  sweet  pickles  may  be  capped,  scooped 
out,  and  filled  with  the  following  mixture : 

1  cupful  of  preserved  citron  or  %  cupful    of    preserved    orange 

watermelon  rind  and  grapefruit  peel 

14  cupful  of  candied  cherries  %  cupful  of  conserved  ginger 

Fasten  the  cap  in  place,  pack  in  jars,  garnish  with  candied  red 
cherries  or  orange-peel,  cover  with  spiced  syrup,  seal,  and  process. 
This  makes  a  delicious  sweet  mango. 

KETCHUP 

Tomato  Ketchup.— Select  red-ripe  tomatoes.  The  extra 
juice,  small  and  broken  fruit,  which  will  not  do  for  canning,  may 
be  used,  if  they  are  sound  red.  Any  green  or  yellowish  parts  of 
fruit  will  make  a  ketchup  inferior  in  flavor  and  color,  and  not 
good  for  market.  Use  whole  spices  tied  loosely  in  a  bag  while 
cooking,  and  remove  before  bottling  to  prevent  darkening  the 
product  caused  by  ground  spices.  This  does  not  apply  to  red 
pepper,  which  helps  to  give  a  bright-red  color.  The  pulp  of  sweet 
Spanish  pepper  or  the  ground  Hungarian  paprika  may  also  be 
used  to  give  color  and  flavor.  Remove  seeds  from  sweet  red  pep- 
per, chop,  and  add  one  cupful  of  this  pepper  and  two  medium- 
sized  onions  to  one  gallon  of  tomatoes  before  cooking. 

Cook  the  tomatoes  thoroughly,  put  through  a  colander  or  sieve, 
saving  all  pulp,  and  measure.  For  every  gallon  of  pulp  use  the 
following : 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  1    level    tablespoonful    each    of 

4  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  whole     allspice,     cloves,     cin- 

1  tablespoonful    of    mustard  namon,  and  pepper 

(powdered)  2  small  red  peppers,  sliced  and 

1  pint  of  good  cider  vinegar  seeds  removed 

14 


210  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

After  putting  tomatoes  through  colander,  add  ground  spices 
and  spice-bag,  and  cook  for  one  and  one-half  hours,  or  until  nearly 
thick  enough,  then  add  vinegar  and  cook  until  thick.  Rapid  cook- 
ing (being  careful  not  to  scorch  the  ketchup)  will  give  a  better 
color  than  slow  cooking.  The  finished  product  should  have  a  fine, 
bright-red  color. 

Pour  the  ketchup  at  once  into  hot  sterilized  bottles.  If  any 
quantity  is  made  for  sale,  set  the  hot  bottles  at  once  into  a  vessel 
of  hot  water,  having  a  rack  or  false  bottom  in  it  to  prevent  break- 
age, put  the  cork  stoppers  in  loosely,  and  process  at  boiling-point 
for  thirty  minutes.  Drive  the  corks  in  tightly,  and  when  cool 
dip  mouth  of  bottle  into  melted  paraffin,  or  cover  stopper  with 
sealing  wax. 

Recipe  for  making  sealing  wax  was  given  on  page  101. 
English  Mushroom  Ketchup  (Nice  for  Soups  and  Sauces). — 

1  pint  of  vinegar  1  teaspoonful  of  horseradish 

20  pounds  of  mushrooms  %  ounce  of  cloves 

1  pound  of  salt  y2  ounce  of  allspice 

To  each  quart  of  liquor  add  1  1  teaspoonful  of  whole  pepper 

ounce    of    bruised    or   ground  1  sprig  of  mace 

ginger  2  onions 

%  nutmeg  1  clove  of  garlic 

Run  mushrooms  through  food  chopper,  mix  salt  through  them, 
and  let  stand  for  twelve  hours,  then  drain.  To  the  liquor  add  all 
ingredients,  boil  slowly  two  hours,  add  vinegar,  bottle,  process, 
and  seal. 

Grape  Ketchup. — 

4  pounds  of  grapes  %  teaspoonful  of  cayenne  pep- 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  cinnamon  per,  if  desired 

1  tablespoon  each  of  cloves  and  1  cupful  of  vinegar 

allspices  1  teaspoonful  of  salt 

iy2  pounds  of  sugar 

Wash  and  stem  the  grapes,  and  steam  them  over  water  until 
soft.  Put  through  a  colander.  Add  the  spices,  sugar,  salt,  and 
vinegar  and  let  simmer  for  fifteen  minutes.  Bottle  and  seal.  Use 


PICKLING  211 

whole  spices  tied  in  a  cloth  while  cooking  and  remove  before  bot- 
tling. This  will  give  a  better  color  than  when  ground  spices  are 
used. 

Cranberry  Ketchup. — 

5  pounds  of  cranberries  3  tablespoonfuls  of  cinnamon 

1  pint  of  vinegar  %  tablespoonf ul     of    ground 

2  pounds  of  brown  sugar  cloves 

%  tablespoonful  of  paprika  %  tablespoonful  of  salt 

Cook  the  cranberries  and  vinegar  until  the  berries  burst,  press 
through  a  sieve,  add  other  ingredients,  and  let  simmer  until  thick, 
process  fifteen  minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering),  cork, 
and  seal. 

Pimiento  Ketchup. — 

6  pounds   of  ripe,  roasted,  and  2  tablespoonfuls     of     powdered 
peeled  pimientos  ginger 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  2  tablespoonfuls     of     powdered 

2  pounds  of  sugar  cinnamon 

1  quart  of  vinegar 

Roast  and  peel  the  pimientos  as  for  canning.  Remove  stem 
seeds,  weigh,  and  pass  through  a  food  chopper.  Rub  spices 
together,  add  sugar,  and  mix  well  with  the  pepper  pulp.  Heat 
thoroughly  and  add  the  vinegar  slowly.  Cook  all  together  until 
smooth  and  of  the  proper  consistency.  Pour  hot  into  sterilized 
bottles,  cork  or  cap,  and  seal.  If  the  bottles  of  ketchup  are  to  be 
shipped,  sterilize  them  in  a  hot-water  bath  for  thirty  minutes  at 
180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering),  and  cork  or  seal  immediately. 

SAUCES 

Chile  Sauce. — 

1  gallon  of  chopped  ripe  toma-  2  tablespoonfuls  of  ginger 

toes  1  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 

y2  cupful     of     chopped     white  1  tablespoonful  of  mustard 

onions  1  nutmeg  (grated) 

i/2  cupful     of     chopped     sweet  1  quart  of  vinegar 

green  peppers  %  cupful  of  salt 

%  cupful  of  chopped  sweet  red  %  teaspoonful  of  cayenne  pep- 
peppers  per 

%  cupful  of  brown  sugar 


212  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Peel  the  tomatoes  and  onions.  Chop  the  onions  and  peppers 
fine.  Boil  all  the  ingredients  except  the  vinegar  together  for  two 
hours  or  until  soft  and  broken.  Add  vinegar  and  simmer  for  one 
hour.  Stir  frequently.  Bottle  and  seal  while  hot. 

Pepper  Sauce. — Wash  small  cherry  or  Chile  red  and  green 
peppers,  pack  into  bottles,  cover  with  good  cider  vinegar  and  cork. 
It  will  be  ready  for  use  within  a  few  days.  As  the  sauce  is  used 
more  vinegar  may  be  added  to  the  peppers  from  time  to  time. 

Tabasco  Sauce. — 

4  dozen  red  tabasco  or  Chile  %  cupful  of  spiced  vinegar 

peppers  1  clove  of  garlic 

Boil  the  finely  chopped  garlic  and  peppers  until  tender,  drain, 
rub  through  a  sieve,  and  add  to  the  paste  enough  spiced  vinegar 
to  make  it  of  a  creamy  consistency.  Bottle  and  seal.  Onion  may 
be  used  in  place  of  garlic  if  desired.  Use  spiced  vinegar.  Recipe 
given  on  page  208. 

Tomato  Paste. — 

1  quart  of  thick  tomato  pulp  %   teaspoonful  of  salt 

1    slice   of   onion    (2    inches    in  1  teaspoonful  of  paprika 

diameter)  1  tablespoonful  of  mixed  spices 

Mix  one  tablespoonful  of  spices  about  as  follows :  One-half 
teaspoonful  each  of  mustard  seed,  cloves,  cinnamon,  crushed 
celery  seed,  and  bay  leaf,  one-quarter  teaspoonful  of  whole  black 
pepper,  and  one  sprig  of  mace. 

Tie  spice  in  cheesecloth  and  cook  with  tomato  pulp  in  a  pan 
over  water  until  thick  enough  to  hold  the  shape  of  a  spoon  when 
a  spoonful  of  it  is  dipped  out.  Pack  hot  into  small  sterilized  jars 
or  flat  No.  1  cans,  process  fifteen  minutes  at  boiling. 

PRESERVING  VEGETABLES  BY  FERMENTATION  4 

The  preserving  of  food  products  by  fermentation  has  been 
practiced  for  centuries.  In  Europe  many  fermented  substances 
are  common  articles  of  food.  In  the  United  States,  however, 
pickles  and  sauer-kraut  are  the  only  foods  commonly  prepared 

4  The  recipe  for  preserving  cucumbers,  chayotes,  beets,  and  string  beans 
by  fermentation  was  contributed  by  Dr.  L.  A.  Round,  Bureau  of  Chemistry, 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


PICKLING  213 

in  this  manner.  A  number  of  vegetables  which  are  commonly 
preserved  by  canning  can  be  fermented  and  kept  indefinitely. 
Whenever  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  tin  cans  and  glass  jars,  fer- 
mentation is  the  most  feasible  method  of  preserving  many  food 
products.  The  following  procedure  is  recommended : 

Cucumbers,  Chayotes,  Beets,  and  String  Beans.4 — Cucum- 
bers and  chayotes  may  be  satisfactorily  fermented  by  the  fol- 
lowing method:  Wash  the  fruit,  if  necessary,  and  pack  into  a 
clean,  water-tight  barrel,  keg,  or  crock.  On  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel  place  a  layer  of  dill  and  a  handful  of  mixed  spice.  When 
half  full  add  another  layer  of  dill  and  another  handful  of  spice. 
When  the  barrel  is  full,  add  more  dill  and  spice.  If  a  keg  or 
crock  is  used,  the  amount  of  dill  and  spice  can  be  reduced  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  tho  receptacle.  When  nearly  full, 
cover  with  cabbage  or  spinach  leaves  and  a  board  cover  weighted 
with  stone.  Make  a  brine  by  adding  one  pound  of  salt  to  ten 
quarts  of  water.  To  each  fifteen  quarts  of  brine  so  made  add 
one  quart  of  vinegar.  Add  sufficient  brine  to  cover  the  material 
and  allow  to  ferment.  The  strings  should  be  removed  from 
string  beans  before  fermentation.  In  case  of  beets  and  string 
beans,  also,  if  they  are  to  be  served  like  fresh  string  beans, 
the  addition  of  spice  is  not  necessary.  Beets,  of  course,  re- 
quire careful  washing  to  remove  all  dirt  before  brining.  When 
the  acid  test  with  litmus  paper  is  obtained,  seal  the  brine 
air-tight. 

Dill  Pickles. — Dill  pickles  are  made  from  fresh  or  salted 
cucumbers  (the  former  are  choicer,  but  the  latter  have  better 
keeping  qualities).  Employ  pickled  dill  seed  or  herb  5  and  "dill 
spice, "  composed  of  allspice,  black  pepper,  coriander  seed,  and 
bay  leaves,  in  addition  to  the  brine. 

Soak  100  cucumbers  in  a  30-degree  brine  until  the  brine  will 
give  an  acid  test  with  litmus  paper.  Drain  and  arrange  in 
layers  in  a  crock,  putting  in  a  layer  of  cherry  or  grape  leaves 

"Dill  is  an  herb  of  the  parsley  family,  grown  chiefly  for  its  aromatic, 
pungent  seeds,  which  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  sauces,  pickles,  etc. 


214:  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

first,  then  the  cucumbers,  then  a  few  cloves,  the  dill,  a  few  small 
pieces  of  red  pepper,  and  then  the  leaves.  Continue  until  the 
crock  is  full.  Cover  with  the  brine  which  was  drained  off  and 
to  which  have  been  added  one-half  cupful  of  mustard  seed,  one- 
half  cupful  of  horseradish  and  one-half  cupful  of  salt.  Cover 
with  a  light  weight  and  seal  air-tight  for  winter  use. 

Brining  Cauliflower. — A  surplus  crop  of  cauliflower  can  be 
brined  and  used  in  mixed  pickles  later  in  the  year  when  other 
vegetables  mature. 

The  ' '  Rice ' '  heads  of  cauliflower  are  heavier  than  the  smoother 
heads,  and  are  not  so  fine  for  the  market,  but  they  are  very  good 
for  pickling.  Plain  tight  barrels  or  kegs  may  be  used.  ' l  Second- 
hand" charred  barrels  are  very  satisfactory.  Be  sure  barrels 
are  clean  before  filling  with  the  cauliflower. 

All  outer  leaves  should  be  removed,  and  the  stump  and  heads 
should  be  put  in  whole,  if  possible.  Pack  cauliflower  heads  in 
barrels  until  two-thirds  full,  and  fill  barrel  with  brine 
which  tests  40°  with  a  salometer.  Head  the  barrels  and  bore  a 
small  hole  (one-half  inch  to  three-quarters  inch)  in  the 
top  and  fill  the  barrel  to  overflowing  with  brine  through  this 
hole.  A  little  brine  has  to  be  added  from  time  to  time  to  take 
care  of  any  leakage.  Turn  barrel  at  end  of  each  week  for  six 
weeks.  To  do  this,  bung  hole  up  tightly  and  turn  barrels  upside 
down  so  the  salt  which  has  settled  at  bottom  will  be  equally 
distributed  again.  Watch  for  leakage  and  be  sure  to  keep  cauli- 
flower well  covered  with  brine. 

After  two  months  the  cauliflower  should  be  repacked.  Skim 
the  brine,  using  a  skimming  ladle.  Dip  out  the  cauliflower  and 
repack  fairly  tight  in  a  clean  barrel  which  has  been  scalded. 
Cover  with  brine  testing  40°  with  salometer.  If  an  instrument 
is  not  at  hand  for  testing  the  brine,  use  one  pound  of  salt  to 
each  gallon  of  water  (one  pint  of  salt  to  eight  pints  of  water). 
Bung  up,  fill  top  with  water  to  take  care  of  leakage,  and  allow 
to  stand  about  five-months  or  until  ready  to  use. 

The  Hollanders  commence  with  a  30-degree  brine  and  finish 
with  a  35-degree  brine.  They  cure  in  casks  only,  and  their 
cauliflower  has  a  better  flavor  than  the  domestic,  because  the 


PICKLING  215 

brine  is  kept  so  low  that  they  get  a  lactic  acid  cure.     The  same 
principle  is  followed  in  the  cure  of  genuine  dill  pickle. 

Sauer-kraut  or  "  Crout." — Use  one  to  three  quarts  of  salt  to 
twenty  gallons  of  shredded  slaw  or  cabbage,  or  three  pounds  of 
salt  to  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  shredded  cabbage  will  give 
a  good  flavor  to  the  resulting  kraut.  Remove  outside  leaves  and 
the  hard  core  of  cabbage.  Shred  the  rest  finely.  Line  the  keg 
with  the  larger  leaves  on  the  bottom  and  sides  as  you  fill  it.  Put 
in  a  three-inch  layer  of  shredded  cabbage  and  sprinkle  with  four 
or  five  tablespoonfuls  of  salt.  Continue  to  repeat  the  process, 
lining  barrel  with  the  large  leaves.  Pound  it  all  down  well  until 
the  cask  is  full  and  covered  with  the  brine.  The  salt  soon  ex- 
tracts a  considerable  amount  of  juice  from  the  cabbage,  and  this 
brine  should  rise  above  the  slaw.  Cover  with  the  large  leaves 
and  a  board  cover  to  fit  inside  the  cask.  Weight  this  cover  down 
with  heavy  weights  so  it  will  keep  the  cover  level.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  use  lime  or  sandstone  for  weights,  for  the  acid 
produced  by  fermentation  attacks  the  lime  and  destroys  the 
keeping  quality  of  the  brine.  It  is  necessary  that  the  cabbage 
be  entirely  covered  with  brine  at  all  times.  Keep  in  a  cool,  dry 
cellar  for  three  weeks  to  a  month.  Remove  the  scum  and  see 
that  it  is  well  covered  with  juice.  When  the  weather  is  warm 
the  kraut  will  cure  in  sixteen  to  eighteen  days,  when  it  is  ready 
for  use  or  for  canning. 

It  may  be  packed  in  No.  3  cans  and  covered  with  boiling 
water.  Cap,  exhaust  five  minutes,  tip,  and  process  thirty  minutes 
in  a  hot-water  bath  at  212°  Fahrenheit. 

Sauer-kraut  is  usually  made  in  the  fall  for  winter  use.  It 
may  be  eaten  raw,  fried,  boiled  with  pork  with  onions  added,  or 
with  wienerwurst  sausage  and  browned  in  oven,  or  cooked  with 
spare-ribs. 

Brining  Onions.— Onions  may  be  cured  by  the  first  method 
given  for  brining  cucumbers  in  a  45-degree  brine  (p.  192) .  When 
the  liquid  gives  an  acid  test  the  jars  or  crocks  should  be  sealed 
from  the  air.  The  onions  will  keep  several  months  by  this 


216 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


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PICKLING  217 

method,  and  may  be  used  in  mixed  pickles  later,  or  spiced  and 
put  in  vinegar  (Fig.  116). 

Pickled  Onions. — Select  small  white  onions  and  sort  into 
two  sizes,  one-half  inch  diameter  in  one  and  three-fourths  inch 
in  other.  Peel,  cover  with  fresh  water,  and  let  stand  for  two 
days,  changing  the  water  on  second  day.  Wash  well  and  put 
into  brine  for  four  days,  changing  brine  at  end  of  second  day. 
Take  out  of  brine  and  put  into  boiling  water.  Let  stand  for 
ten  minutes,  then  put  into  cold  water  for  two  hours.  Drain,  and 
pack  into  jars,  putting  in  a  few  small  red  peppers,  and  garnish- 
ing with  sprigs  of  mace.  Fill  jars  to  overflowing  with  spiced 
vinegar,  made  previously,  as  below,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a 
few  days  with  spice-bags  left  in  it.  Process  as  for  pickles. 

Spiced  Vinegar  for  Pickled  Onions. — 

1/2  gallon  of  vinegar  ll/2  tablespoonfuls    of    mustard 

ll/2   tablespoonfuls  of  celery  see(j 

seed  1  tablespoonful  of  salt 

y2  cupful  of  grated  horseradish 
1  cupful  of  suo-ar  1  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 

Cloves,  nutmeg,  and  grated  onion  may  be  added  if  desired. 

Pickling  Olives.6 — In  California,  Arizona,  and  other  states 
where  olives  can  be  grown  successfully  many  housewives  are 
interested  in  pickling  them  by  household  methods  for  home  use. 

The  two  varieties  which  have  given  the  best  results  in  home 
pickling  are  the  Mission  and  Manzanil'lo.  The  Mission  holds  its 
color  well  while  being  pickled,  and  with  reasonable  care  in  the 
extracting  process  yields  a  product  which  is  firm  and  of  good 
flavor.  The  Manzanillo  is  superior  to  the  Mission  in  flavor,  but 
the  fruit  is  of  a  finer  texture  and  is  prone  to  soften  during 
treatment ;  the  color  of  the  finished  product  is  not  so  good  as  that 
of  the  Mission. 

The  finest  pickled  green  olives  come  from  the  south  of  Spain. 
California  and  Arizona  lead  in  the  marketing  of  the  pickled 
ripe  olive.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  green  olive  is  no  longer 
receiving  attention. 

"NOTE. — Directions  for  pickling  olives  obtained  from  Farmers'  Bulletin 
290,  1907,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  W.  W.  Skinner. 


218  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Fruit  for  pickled  green  olives  is  gathered  when  it  has  attained 
full  size,  but  before  final  ripening  begins.  It  is  sorted  according 
to  size  and  quality,  then  washed  and  placed  in  a  solution  of  lime 
and  potash  to  remove  the  bitter  taste. 

The  olives,  either  green  or  ripe,  should  be  picked  into  pails 
about  one-third  full  of  water,  to  prevent  bruising,  and  sorted 
as  to  size  and  ripeness.  The  fruit  is  then  placed  in  suitable 
vessels  (preferably  stone  jars,  though  wooden  kegs  may  be  used 
if  sterilized  so  that  they  are  free  from  mold  spores),  the  water 
poured  off,  and  the  fruit  covered  with  a  solution  made  of  two 
ounces  of  soda  lye,  one  ounce  of  lime,  and  one  ounce  of  common 
salt  to  a  gallon  of  water.  The  solution  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed  and  allowed  to  stand  an  hour  before  using,  and  is  best  if 
made  of  boiled  and  cooled  water.  It  should  stand  about  two 
inches  above  the  fruit,  and  if  any  of  the  olives  float  it  is  necessary 
to  cover  them  with  a  board  and  weight. 

The  time  of  the  lye  treatment  varies  from  three  to  seven  days, 
according  to  the  variety,  size,  and  ripeness  of  the  fruit.  The 
solution  should  be  examined  daily,  and  should  the  sleek,  soapy 
feeling  peculiar  to  lye  disappear  it  indicates  that  the  solution 
is  exhausted.  The  old  solution  should  therefore  be  poured  off 
and  new  solution  added.  It  should  also  be  changed  at  once 
should  any  scum  or  mold  appear.  The  fruit  should  be  fre- 
quently examined,  always  sampling  the  largest  olives  by  cutting 
away  a  portion  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  progress  of  the  lye 
toward  the  interior  of  the  fruit  is  plainly  marked  by  a  distinct 
dark  ring.  When  the  ring  has  reached  almost  but  not  quite  to 
the  pit  it  is  time  to  remove  the  lye  and  commence  the  washing. 

The  lye  should  now  be  poured  off  and  water  added  and 
renewed  morning  and  night.  The  wash-water  should  also  be 
boiled  as  a  preventative  of  mold,  which  is  very  likely  to  develop 
at  this  stage  of  the  pickling  process.  The  fruit  should  be  kept 
in  water,  as  before,  with  the  board  and  weight,  and  throughout 
the  extraction,  washing,  and  salting  the  vessel  should  be  closely 
covered.  It  will  require  from  four  to  seven  days  to  remove  all 
traces  of  the  alkali.  "Washing  should  be  continued  so  long  as  the 
fruit  has  the  peculiar  hot  taste  due  to  the  presence  of  lye,  and  it 


PICKLING  219 

is  well  to  test  it  with  red  litmus  paper,  which  will  turn  blue  if  a 
trace  of  the  lye  remains.  If  the  olives  are  still  bitter  after  the 
washing  has  been  completed,  they  should  receive  a  second  treat- 
ment with  lye,  followed  by  washing. 

When  free  from  lye  the  olives  are  ready  for  pickling.  Some 
use  brine  only  or  salt  and  vinegar  mixed,  others  add  fennel  and 
thyme  or  coriander  and  laurel  leaves.  The  fruit  is  generally 
pickled  whole,  but  when  desired  to  give  a  stronger  pickle  savor 
it  is  marked  with  incisions  to  the  stone. 

If  olives  are  to  be  brined,  use  two  ounces  of  common  salt  to 
a  gallon  of  water.  The  brine  should  be  thoroughly  boiled,  cooled, 
and  poured  over  the  olives.  The  next  day  this  solution  should 
be  poured  off  and  a  solution  containing  four  ounces  of  salt 
should  be  used.  If  the  stronger  solution  is  used  to  begin  with, 
the  olives  will  shrivel.  The  fruit  should  next  be  treated  with 
an  eight-ounce  brine,  and,  if  intended  to  keep  for  some  time, 
finally  with  a  brine  containing  fourteen  ounces  of  salt  to  tho 
gallon.  A  fourteen-ounce  brine,  however,  makes  the  olives  too 
salty  to  be  used  without  a  slight  soaking. 

The  better  method  of  keeping  the  finished  product  is  to 
process  the  olives  after  adding  the  eight-ounce  brine.  Glass 
fruit  jars  filled  with  olives  and  brine,  with  the  covers  lightly 
screwed  down  over  the  rubbers,  are  heated  to  180°  Fahrenheit 
(simmering)  for  thirty  minutes.  They  should  then  be  removed 
and  the  covers  quickly  tightened.  By  this  process  the  flavor 
of  the  olive  is  not  injured,  and  if  properly  done  the  fruit  will 
keep  at  least  several  months  without  deteriorating. 

A  perfect  pickled  green  olive  is  yellowish  green,  very  firm, 
with  pinkish  pit  and  agreeable  flavor.  Fruit  of  lesser  quality 
is  dark  in  color,  with  meat  soft  and  mushy,  or  woody  and  taste- 
less, these  defects  being  caused  either  by  age  or  imperfect  curing. 

Pickled  or  salted  ripe  or  black  olives  are  purplish  black  in 
color,  and  dark  and  rather  soft  in  pulp,  with  a  bland  flavor 
due  to  the  oil  developed  in  the  ripening.  They  are  processed 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  green  fruit,  as  prior  to  pickling 
they  retain  the  characteristic  bitter  flavor.  Green  olives  are  essen- 
tially a  relish.  Ripe  olives  are  a  wholesome  and  nutritious  food. 


220  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Plain  Mock  Olives. — Mock  olives  may  be  made  for  home  use 
from  unripe  plums.  The  plums,  when  just  beginning  to  ripen, 
but  still  green,  should  be  pickled  in  a  45-degree  brine  (one 
pound,  nine  ounces  of  salt  and  one  gallon  of  water) .  The  brine 
should  be  poured,  hot,  over  the  fruit  and  allowed  to  stand  for 
thirty-six  hours.  It  should  then  be  poured  off.  Place  the  fruit 
in  a  new  brine  and  boil  for  one  minute.  Drain  the  plums, 
pack  into  jars,  cover  with  hot  brine.  Seal  and  process  pint  jars 
for  thirty  minutes  at  212°  Fahrenheit. 

Spiced  Mock  Olives. — One  gallon  of  green  plums  soaked  for 
twenty-four  hours  in  45-degree  brine  (one  pound,  nine  ounces 
of  salt  and  one  gallon  of  water).  Drain,  place  into  stone  jars, 
and  pour  scalding  vinegar  over  them.  Next  morning  drain  off 
this  vinegar,  add  to  it  two  tablespoonfuls  of  mustard  seed,  and 
boil  for  two  minutes.  Pour,  hot,  over  the  plums  and  allow  to 
stand  until  cold.  Pack  in  bottles,  cover  with  hot  strained  liquor, 
seal,  and  process  as  for  plain  mock  olives. 

Pickled  Mushrooms. — Steam  whole  mushrooms,  place  into 
jars,  cover  with  vinegar,  seal,  and  process  as  for  mock  olives. 

FLAVORED   VINEGARS 

Tarragon  Vinegar. — Bruise  one  cupful  of  Tarragon  leaves, 
pour  over  them  one  quart  of  good  apple  vinegar,  and  allow  to 
stand  for  from  ten  to  twelve  days.     After  this  time  strain  care- 
fully through  a  flannel  cloth,  bottle,  and  seal  air-tight. 
Celery  Vinegar. — 

1  quart  of  vinegar  8  tablespoonfuls   of  celery  seed 

1  tablespoonful  of  salt  (crushed)      or     1     quart     of 

1  tablespoonful  of  sugar  chopped  fresh  celery 

Heat  the  vinegar,  add  the  seasoning,  and  pour  while  hot  over 
the  celery.  Allow  to  cool,  cover  tightly,  and  set  aside  for  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  days.  Strain,  bottle,  and  seal. 

Onion  Vinegar. — 

1  quart  of  good  vinegar  1  tablespoonful  of  salt 

%  cupful     of     chopped     white  1  tablespoonful  of  sugar 

onions 

Scald  the  vinegar  and  spices,  pour  over  the  onions,  allow  to 
stand  for  two  weeks,  strain,  bottle,  and  seal. 


PICKLING  221 

Tarragon,  celery,  and  onion  vinegar  are  delicious  when  used 
in  dressings  and  served  with  salads. 

Artichoke  Pickle. — Scrub  and  scrape  young  artichokes, 
plunge  them  into  boiling  brine  (one-quarter  cupful  of  salt  to  one 
quart  of  water)  for  five  minutes.  Then  put  into  clear,  cold 
water  for  a  few  minutes.  Drain  and  cover  with  a  spiced  vine- 
gar (p.  208).  Let  stand  over  night,  and  pack  in  sterilized  jars. 
Cover  with  the  spiced  vinegar  and  process  small  jars  in  water- 
bath  for  fifteen  minutes  and  quart  jars  twenty-five  minutes  at 
180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering). 

Pickled  Beets. — Cook  small  beets  until  tender,  slip  the  skins 
off,  pack  into  jars,  cover  with  spiced  vinegar,  seal  and  process 
for  thirty  minutes  at  simmering).  Beets  are  better  canned  in 
water  and  made  into  pickle  as  desired. 

Sweet  Pickled  Carrots. — Boil  young,  tender  carrots  until 
three-fourths  done,  scrape,  cut  in  thin  slices,  and  pour  a  boiling 
spiced  syrup  over  them,  made  by  boiling  together  one  quart  of 
vinegar,  one  quart  of  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon, 
cloves,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  mace  and  allspice.  Allow  to 
stand  over  night  in  this  syrup.  Next  morning  boil  for  five 
minutes,  cool  quickly,  pack  into  jars,  strain  syrup  over  them, 
seal,  and  process  as  for  all  pickles. 

Spiced  Green  Tomatoes. — 

6  pounds  of  small  whole  green  1  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 

tomatoes  y2  tablespoonful  of  cloves 

4  pounds  of  su^ar  y2  tablespoonful  of  allspice 

1  pint  of  vinegar  i/2  tablespoonful  of  mace 

Small  green  fig  or  plum  tomatoes  are  suitable  for  this  pickle. 
Scald  and  peel.  Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar,  vinegar,  and  spices. 
Drop  in  the  whole  fruit  and  boil  until  the  tomatoes  become 
clear,  pour  all  into  trays,  cool  quickly,  pack  cold  into  jars,  strain 
syrup  over  them,  seal  and  process. 

Spiced  Rhubarb. — Peel  and  slice  one  pound  of  rhubarb. 
Sprinkle  over  one  cupful  of  sugar,  and  let  stand  over  night. 
Next  morning  drain  off  the  syrup,  add  one-half  cupful  of  sugar, 
and  put  over  the  fire.  Tie  in  spice-bag  (six  whole  cloves,  three 
whole  allspice,  a  bit  of  mace,  a  six-inch  stick  of  cinnamon,  and 


222  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

a  two-inch  piece  of  ginger  root),  put  into  syrup  and  boil  ten 
minutes,  skim  out  spices,  add  rhubarb,  and  cook  until  clear. 
Seal  in  small  jars. 

SPICED  FRUITS 

Spiced  Crab  Apples. — Choose  round  crab  apples  uniform  in 
size;  do  not  pare  them.  Make  a  spiced  syrup  by  boiling  to- 
gether one  quart  of  vinegar,  one  quart  of  sugar,  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  one  teaspocnful  of  mace  and  all- 
spice, add  crab  apples,  and  heat  gently,  being  careful  not  to 
burst  the  fruit.  Let  stand  in  syrup  over  night,  pack  cold,  cover 
with  syrup,  seal,  and  process  pint  jars  fifteen  minutes  at  180° 
Fahrenheit  ( simmering ) . 

Pickled  Watermelon  Rind. — One  pound  of  watermelon  rind 
boiled  in  one  quart  of  salt  water  (one-quarter  cupful  of  salt  to 
one  quart  of  water)  for  fifteen  minutes.  Drain  well  and  dip 
into  a  cold  bath  until  the  flavor  of  salt  is  gone.  Drain  care- 
fully and  stand  in  lime  water  over  night  (two  ounces  of  lime  to 
one  gallon  of  water).  Drain  next  morning  and  cook  rapidly  in 
a  syrup  made  by  boiling  together  one  pound  of  sugar,  one  pint 
of  water,  one  pint  of  vinegar,  one  teaspoonful  each  of  cloves, 
cinnamon,  allspice,  and  one-half  teaspoonful  of  mace.  Cook  until 
rind  becomes  clear  and  transparent.  Cool  before  packing,  proc- 
ess as  for  other  sweet  pickles,  and  seal. 

Cantaloupe  Pickle  (Sour). — Select  under-ripe  cantaloupe, 
peel,  cut  into  sections.  Place  two  pounds  in  stone  jar  and  pour 
over  a  boiling  mixture  of  one  quart  of  vinegar,  one  pint  of 
water,  adding  spices  tied  in  spice-bag: 

iy2  teaspoonfuls  of  mace  6  teaspoonfuls  of  cloves 

2  teaspoonfuls  of  cinnamon  1  pound  of  sugar 

Next  day  pour  vinegar  off  and  bring  to  boil.  Add  sugar  and 
drop  in  the  spices  and  sections  of  fruit  and  boil  until  trans- 
parent. Pack  fruit  in  jars  and  boil  vinegar  mixture  for  fifteen 
minutes  longer  to  make  a  heavier  syrup.  Pour  it  over  the  fruit, 
cap  jars,  and  process  pints  for  fifteen  minutes. 

Cantaloupe  Pickle  (Sweet). — Soak  one  and  one-half  pounds 
of  rind  for  three  hours  in  lime  water  (two  ounces  of  lime  to  one 
gallon  of  water) .  Drain  and  soak  in  fresh  water  for  one  hour. 


PICKLING  223 

Make  a  syrup  by  boiling  together  one  quart  of  water  and  one 
pint  of  sugar,  add  well-drained  rind,  and  cook  rapidly  for  thirty 
minutes.  Allow  to  stand  over  night.  Next  morning  add  one 
cupful  of  sugar,  one  cupful  of  vinegar,  and  spice-bag  (one 
tablespoonful  each  of  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  allspice,  and  one- 
half  tablespoonful  of  mace).  Cook  until  rind  is  transparent 
(about  one  hour).  Cool  and  pack  in  small  jars.  Cover  with  the 
strained  syrup  and  process. 

Sweet  Pickled  Chayote. — 

2  pounds  sliced  chayotes  %  ounces  of  whole  cloves 

2  pounds  of  sugar  ya  ounce  of  dried  ginger  root 

1  ounce  of  stick  cinnamon 

Select  half-grown  chayotes,  a  green  variety  preferred,  and 
slice  thinly  cross-wise.  The  slices  from  the  smaller  end  of  each 
fruit  will  make  the  most  attractive  pickle.  The  larger  pieces 
may  be  chopped  and  used  instead  of  cabbage  in  Dixie  relish 
(p.  204). 

The  chayotes  must  first  be  cured  in  a  45-degree  brine  (about 
one  pound,  nine  ounces  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water).  Place 
the  sliced  chayotes  in  a  crock,  cover  them  with  the  brine,  and 
weight  down  with  a  plate.  As  soon  as  the  brine  around  the 
chayotes  will  give  an  acid  test  with  litmus  paper  (that  is,  will 
turn  blue  litmus  paper  pink)  the  chayotes  are  ready  to  be 
pickled.  This  will  require  three  to  five  days. 

If  not  made  up  into  pickle  at  once  it  will  be  necessary  to  seal 
them  air-tight.  This  can  be  done  by  sealing  the  jar  with  a 
layer  of  cheesecloth  dipped  in  melted  paraffin  over  which  the  lid 
is  placed  and  sealed  with  strips  of  cloth  which  have  been  dipped 
in  melted  paraffin.  The  cured  vegetable  will  keep  as  long  as  kept 
air-tight,  but  the  color  will  not  be  as  good  as  if  finished  at  once. 

Freshen  the  brined  chayotes  by  standing  in  cold  water  for 
about  two  hours.  Drain  and  let  stand  for  two  or  three  hours  in 
a  weak  vinegar  solution  (one  cupful  of  vinegar  to  three  cupfuls 
of  water).  Place  in  stronger  vinegar  solution  (one  and  one-half 
cupfuls  of  vinegar  to  one  and  one-half  cupfuls  of  water)  for  a 
couple  of  hours.  Then  add  the  sugar  and  the  spices,  which  are 
tied  up  in  cheesecloth  bags,  to  this  solution.  Cook  the  chayotes 


224:       SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

in  this  syrup  until  clear  and  transparent.  Let  stand  until  cold 
or  over  night  in  the  syrup  so  that  the  slices  will  plump.  Cut  a 
tiny  circle  from  the  center  of  each  slice  of  chayote  and  garnish 
with  circles  of  sweet  red  pepper.  Pack  in  jars,  pour  over  the 
strained  syrup,  and  process  like  other  pickles. 

Cucumber  rings  are  sometimes  garnished  and  packed  in  this 
manner. 

Sweet  Pickle  Figs.— 

5  quarts  of  figs  1  quart  of  sugar 

1  quart  of  water  1  tablespoonful  of  cloves 

1  pint  of  sugar  1  teaspoonful  of  allspice 

1  pint  of  vinegar  1  teaspoonful  of  mace 

1  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon 

First,  cook  five  quarts  of  figs  until  tender  in  about  a  30- 
degree  syrup  (one  quart  of  water  to  one  pint  of  sugar). 

When  figs  become  tender,  add  one  quart  of  sugar,  one  pint 
of  vinegar,  one  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon,  one  tablespoonful  of 
cloves,  one  teaspoonful  of  allspice,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  mace, 
and  cook  until  figs  are  clear  and  transparent.  Allow  them  to 
stand  in  this  syrup  over  night.  On  the  following  morning  pack 
the  fruit  into  jars,  cover  with  syrup.  Sterilize  pint  jars  in 
water-bath  for  fifteen  minutes  at  boiling  or  thirty  minutes  at 
180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering). 

Spiced  Currants  and  Gooseberries. — 

7  pounds  of  fruit  3  tablespoonfuls  of  cinnamon 

1   pint  of  vinegar  2  tablespoonfuls  of  cloves 

5  pounds  of  sugar 

Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar,  spices,  and  vinegar.  Cool,  add 
the  fruit,  and  cook  rapidly  for  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
minutes.  Pack  into  jars  while  hot  and  seal  at  once. 

Spiced  Grapes. — Pick  the  grapes  from  the  stem,  wash  and 
slip  the  pulp  from  the  skins,  steam  the  pulps  over  a  vessel  of 
hot  water  or  in  a  double  boiler  until  they  can  be  rubbed  through 
a  coarse  sieve  to  remove  the  seeds.  Combine  pulp  with  skins 
and  weigh.  To  each  seven  pounds  allow  the  same  proportions 
of  sugar  and  spices  as  for  currants  and  gooseberries  given  above. 
Cook  all  together  until  very  thick,  pack  while  hot,  and  seal  at  once. 


PICKLING  225 

Damson  Plums  and  Cherries. — These  fruits  may  be  spiced 
in  the  same  manner  as  currants  and  gooseberries  (p.  224). 
The  addition  of  one  teaspoonful  of  mace  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
allspice  will  improve  the  flavor.  After  they  are  cooked  in  the 
syrup  until  tender,  lift  them  out  and  cook  syrup  fifteen  minutes 
longer,  then  pour  over  the  fruit  and  allow  to  stand  until  cold. 
Pack,  seal,  and  process  pint  jars  fifteen  minutes  at  180°  Fahren- 
heit (simmering). 

Sweet  Pickled  Peaches.— 

6  pounds  of  fruit  4  ounces  of  stick  cinnamon 
3  pounds  of  sugar  2  ounces  of  whole  cloves 

1  pint  of  water  1  ounce  of  ginger 

1  pint  of  vinegar 

Select  firm  clingstone  peaches.  It  is  better  to  have  them 
under-ripe  than  over-ripe.  Peel  by  either  method  given  under 
canning  peaches  (p.  126),  and  drop  at  once  into  a  syrup  which  is 
made  by  boiling  together  the  sugar  and  water,  and  boil  for 
fifteen  minutes.  Cool  quickly  and  allow  to  stand  for  from  two 
to  three  hours.  Drain  off  the  syrup,  put  vinegar  and  spices  into 
it,  boil  for  fifteen  minutes,  then  add  the  peaches  and  cook  to- 
gether for  half  an  hour.  Let  stand  over  night.  Next  morning 
drain  off  the  syrup,  boil  for  twenty  minutes,  add  the  peaches,  and 
continue  cooking  for  fifteen  minutes  longer.  Cool  again  and  let 
stand  for  two  hours  or  over  night,  then  boil  all  together  until 
the  peaches  are  clear  and  tender.  Pack  peaches  cold  into  jars, 
garnish  with  snips  of  stick  cinnamon,  cover  with  strained  syrup, 
seal,  and  process  quart  jars  for  twenty  minutes  at  180°  Fahren- 
heit (simmering). 

Spiced  Pears. — 

7  pounds  of  hard  pears  %  lemon  (rind) 

3y3  pounds  of  sugar  %  ounce  of  whole  cloves 

1  pint  of  vinegar  y2  ounce  of  whole  allspice 

1  ounce  of  ginger  root  2  ounces  of  stick  cinnamon 

Cut  pears  in  half,  remove  the  seeds,  and  pare.  Make  a 
syrup  of  vinegar  and  sugar,  tie  the  spices  in  small  pieces  of 
cheesecloth  and  add  them  to  the  syrup.  When  this  mixture 
begins  to  simmer,  add  the  pears  and  lemon  rind  and  bring  to  the 
boiling-point,  cool  quickly,  and  allow  to  stand  over  night.  The 
15 


226  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

next  morning  drain  off  the  syrup  from  the  pears  into  a  porcelain- 
lined  or  agate  kettle,  bring  the  syrup  to  boiling-point  and  pour 
over  the  pears,  allow  to  stand  over  night  again.  Next  day  drain 
and  heat  the  syrup  as  before,  repeating  this  for  four  or  five  con- 
secutive days,  then  boil  the  syrup  down  until  it  is  just  enough 
to  cover  the  fruit,  add  the  fruit  to  the  hot  syrup  and  boil  for 
thirty  minutes,  pack  the  fruit  into  jars,  garnish  with  snips  of 
cinnamon,  cover  with  the  syrup,  seal,  and  process  for  thirty 
minutes  at  180°  Fahrenheit  (simmering). 

The  pears  may  be  finished  in  one  day  by  boiling  them  in 
the  syrup  until  the  fruit  is  clear;  remove  the  fruit  and  boil  the 
syrup  down  to  221°  Fahrenheit,  add  the  fruit,  reheat  it,  and 
finish  as  above.  The  fruit  is  less  rich  if  done  in  this  way. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "pickling"? 

2.  What  is  the  secret  of  pickle-making? 

3.  Why  should  some  vegetables  be  soaked  in  salt  water  until  cured  and 

others  parboiled  in  salt  water  before  the  flavored  vinegar  or  syrup 
is  added? 

4.  What  strength  brine  would  you  use  if  you  were  preparing  it  for  cucum- 

ber pickles?     How  approximate  this  if  you  have  no  hydrometer  at 
hand? 

5.  While  the  pickle  is  in  brine,  why  should  the  container  be  covered  only 

with  a  cloth  so  as  to  admit  air? 

6.  At  what  stage  in  the  preparation  of  pickles  are  bacteria  useful?     Ex- 

plain their  action.     How  are  these  introduced  into  the  brine? 

7.  What  is  the  value  of  the  presence  of  an  acid  in  the  brine?     How  can 

you  test  for  it? 

8.  Why  should  the  air  be  excluded  as  soon  as  the  acid  is  formed  in  the 

brine? 

9.  Why  is  it  well  to  turn  the  kegs  or  barrels  containing  pick,les  in  brine? 

10.  Why  is  a  lime  bath  sometimes  used  ? 

11.  Why  is  a  soda  bath  sometimes  used? 

12.  If  either  bath  is  used,  what  must  necessarily  follow? 

13.  What  is  the  standard  for  the  finished  product? 

14.  Give  an  outline  of  the  preparation  of  olives. 


PICKLING  22? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  CRAWFORD,  R.  F.,  "Report  on  the  Dutch  Brined  Vegetable  Industry,' 

British  Board  of  Agriculture,  1902.  Published  by  Darling  &  Son 
London.  8  pence. 

2.  "Creole  Cook  Book,"  1914.     The  Picayune,  New  Orleans,  La.     By  mail, 

$1.25. 

3.  Fox,  MINNIE  C.,  "  Blue  Grass  Cook  Book,"   1904.     Published  by  Fox 

Duffield  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $1.50. 

4.  HOFFMAN  AND  EVANS,  "  The  Uses  of  Spices  as  Preservatives,"  article  in 

the  Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry.  Published  by 
the  American  Chemical  Society,  Easton,  Pa.  $6  a  year. 

5.  KEOLEIAN,  AUDASHES  H.,  "  Oriental  Cook  Book,"  1913.     Published  by 

Sully  &  Kleinteich,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $1.25. 

6.  POWELL,   B.   E.,    "  How   to   Keep   Brine   Pickles,"   article    in   the    Good 

Housekeeping  Magazine  of  August,  1914.  Published  by  Good  House- 
keeping Magazine,  119  West  Fortieth  Street,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 
$1.50  a  year.  15  cents  a  copy. 

7.  RAHN,  OTTO,  article  on  "  Pickling."     Published  by  the  Canning  Trade, 

Baltimore,  Md. 

8.  RICHARDSON,  CLIFFORD,  "  Spices  and  Condiments,"  Bulletin  No.  13,  part 

2,  1887.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

9.  ROUND,  L.  A.,  and  LANG,  H.  L.,  "  Preserving  of  Vegetables  by  Salting 

and  Fermenting,"  Farmers'  Bulletin,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C.,  1917. 

10.  SHINKLE,   CHARLES   A.,   "  American   Commercial   Methods   of   Manufac- 

turing Preserves,  Pickles,  Canned  Goods,  etc.,"  1912.  Published 
by  C.  A.  Shinkle,  Menominee,  Mich.  $10. 

11.  SKINNER,  W.   W.,  "Pickling  Olives  and  Mock  Olives,"  Farmers'  Bul- 

letin No.  296,  1907,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  (Experiment 
Station  Work).  Can  be  procured  from  the  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments, Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 


CHAPTER  XV 
DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS 

GENERAL  METHODS 

THE  drying  of  foods  has  been  practiced  since  the  beginning 
of  civilization. 

Drying  is  one  of  Nature's  own  processes  in  the  drying  of 
grains,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  corn,  and  many  other  seeds.  Nature 's 
methods  have  been  improved  by  the  application  of  artificial  heat, 
which  hastens  the  process.  This  is  used  to  dry  perishable  products 
which  under  natural  conditions  could  not  be  kept.  Modern  meth- 
ods of  evaporating  products  afford  less  opportunity  for  the 
accumulation  of  dirt  and  for  fermentation. 

Foods  prepared  in  this  way  are  less  bulky  and  require  less 
space  for  storage  than  in  the  natural  condition.  First-grade  dried 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  about  as  expensive  as  the  same  product 
would  be  if  canned,  but  they  are  lighter  in  weight,  require 
less  space  in  shipping,  and  can  be  packed  in  less  expensive 
containers. 

The  first  commercial  products  which  were  put  on  the  market 
were  inferior  in  quality  because  the  packages  were  not  only  unsan- 
itary but  the  products  had  often  been  injured  by  dust  and  insects. 
This  led  to  a  general  depreciation  in  the  value  of  dried  foods. 

Insufficient  drying  is  one  of  the  commonest  causes  of  trouble. 
Some  laws  require  that  marketable  dried  fruits  shall  contain  not 
more  than  273/2  per  cent  of  water,  and  this  limit  practically  elimi- 
nates that  particular  trouble  to  great  advantage  of  the  industry 
as  a  whole.  If  a  larger  proportion  of  water  remains,  the  fruit 
tends  to  discolor,  mold,  or  sour.  A  bushel  of  green  apples,  for 
example,  weighs  about  fifty  pounds,  and  should  make,  seven  or 
eight  pounds  of  white  stock,  four  pounds  waste,  five-sixths  of  the 
fruit  being  water.  Apples  when  dried  still  contain  25  per  cent 
of  water. 
228 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  ££9 

The  comparative  merits  of  the  open-air  "drying"  and  the 
indoor  i 'evaporating"  processes  hinge  entirely  upon  the  matter  of 
climate.  In  California  open-air  drying  is  almost  universally 
practiced,  as  the  sections  where  fruit  is  dried  are  practically  free 
from  excessive  moisture  and  rain  during  the  entire  drying  season. 
In  other  parts  of  the  United  States  the  evaporating  process  has 
superseded  open-air  drying  for  commercial  purposes.  The  results 
of  the  evaporating  process  are  obtained  in  a  shorter  length  of 
time,  and  the  product  has  better  keeping  qualities  and  conse- 
quently commands  a  higher  price  than  sun-dried  fruits  from  the 
same  localities. 

The  evaporating  process  industry  in  the  United  States  began 
about  1868.  It  is  said  that  in  Wayne  County,  New  York,  alone, 
more  than  2000  small  evaporators  are  used  right  in  the  orchards. 
The  dry  kiln,  which  is  most  in  favor  now  among  the  larger  pack- 
ers, consists  of  a  drying  bin  with  a  slat  floor  built  over  a  furnace. 
The  fruit  is  spread  on  the  floor  and  dried  by  the  heat  rising 
through  and  around  it. 

A  type  of  homemade  dry  kiln  used  in  some  sections  of  the 
country  can  be  made  as  follows :  Walls  of  brick  or  stone  are  built 
up  a  foot  or  two  above  the  ground,  with  the  front  end  left  open 
for  a  fire  door.  The  size  of  this  kiln  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
material  to  be  dried.  Many  farm  kilns  are  four  feet  wide  and 
eight  to  ten  feet  long.  At  the  back  end  a  flue  is  built,  and  this 
should  extend  four  or  five  feet  above  the  top  of  the  kiln.  Iron 
bars  are  placed  across  the  top  of  the  structure,  and  sheet  iron  or 
tin  placed  over  these.  A  layer  of  clay  mortar  is  spread  over  the 
whole  surface  to  the  depth  of  about  two  inches.  After  applying' 
the  mortar  a  fire  should  be  started  in  the  furnace  to  bake  the  clay. 
The  firing  should  be  done  with  a  slow  fire,  and  any  cracks  formed 
during  the  baking  should  be  closed  up  with  thin  mortar.  The 
material  to  be  dried  on  this  type  of  a  kiln  is  placed  on  large  metal 
trays  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  Only  a  few  hours  are 
required  for  the  drying  process.  Most  any  fruit  or  vegetable  can 
be  dried  on  this  type  of  drier,  but  those  most  commonly  dried 
are  apples,  peaches,  cherries,  and  sweet  corn. 

A  description  of  the  apple  driers  used  for  vegetable  drying  in 


230  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Western  New  York  is  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  291,  "Evap- 
oration of  Apples."  Other  interesting  descriptive  matter  and 
illustrations  may  be  found  in  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  131,  by  J.  S.  Colwell,  State  College  of  Agriculture, 
Pullman,  Wash.  The  chief  use  of  the  kiln  evaporator  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  Virginia,  Washington,  and  Ar- 
kansas is  for  the  drying  of  apples,  and  many  long-established 
plants  had  never  dried  anything  else  until  1915,  during  which 
time  many  evaporators  in  Monroe  and  Wayne  counties,  New 
York,  ran  full  capacity  in  drying  carrots,  cabbage,  onions,  celery, 
and  Irish  potatoes  for  the  French  War  Department.  These  crops 
when  dried  were  mixed  together  under  a  certain  formula  and 
placed  in  fifteen-pound  cans,  which  were  sealed  and  shipped  to 
the  allied  army,  where  they  were  used  in  making  soup  and  stews 
for  the  soldiers. 

This  great  demand  for  concentrated  products  has  stimulated 
investigations  and  experimental  work  in  drying  foods.  The 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  obtained  some  most  interesting  results  by  the  use  of 
an  electric  fan.  It  was  found  that  products  were  dried  rapidly 
and  retained  a  good  color  by  the  use  of  the  fan.  This  indicates 
the  value  of  currents  of  air  in  drying.  In  any  system  of  drying 
there  needs  to  be  considered  the  circulation  of  air  as  well  as  the 
application  of  heat. 

Indoor  Drying. — The  indoor  methods  of  drying  have  been 
found  necessary  in  large  parts  of  the  United  States  now  on  ac- 
count of  the  moisture  present  in  the  atmosphere.  The  following 
methods  of  indoor  drying  are  sometimes  used  commercially: 

1.  The  fruit  is  enclosed  in  a  chamber  where  heated  air  is  cir- 
culated over  and  through  the  fruit  until  70  to  75  per  cent  of  the 
water  is  extracted. 

2.  Vacuum  driers  are  sometimes  used.     The  evaporation  is 
more  rapid,  but  the  color  of  the  product  is  affected.    If  sulfuriz- 
ing  is  applied  a  better  color  may  be  preserved. 

3.  Hydraulic  pressure  for  certain  products  has  been  found 
to  be  a  most  effective  method,  but  is  not-generally  used  in  America. 

French  Methods  of  Vegetable  Drying. — The  following  gives 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  231 

two  French  methods  of  drying  green  vegetables,  which  form  the 
basis  of  a  large  industry  in  that  country,  some  experiments  with 
which  are  under  way  in  the  United  States : 

1.  The  greens  are  carefully  selected,  trimmed,  and  put  into  a 
hurdle  of  coarse  linen  cloth.    This  hurdle  is  set  up  in  a  chamber 
which  is  warmed  by  means  of  hot  air.    The  heat  circulates  through 
pipes,  running  back  and  forth  through  the  chamber  of  the  evapo- 
rator, at  a  temperature  of  95°  to  113°  Fahrenheit,  or  35°  to  45° 
Centigrade,  being  regulated  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
greens.    The  heat  should  be  raised  gradually  to  prevent  a  loss  of 
flavor  and  color.     The  advocates  of  this  process  claim  that  the 
heat  is  more  evenly  distributed  and  the  temperature  more  uni- 
form, avoiding  danger  of  scorching  the  fruit. 

2.  Another  operation  of  drying  green  vegetables  is  carried  on 
in  France  most  successfully  by  a  gradual  pressing  while  drying 
the  product.    The  volume  of  greens  lessens  four-fifths  by  the  use  of 
a  powerful  working  hydraulic  press.    The  greens  are  laid  into  two 
strong  iron  boxes  which  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  mounting 
beam  of  the  press  and  a  strong,  close-fitting  pounder  presses 
them.    By  this  process  a  cabbage  head  of  very  great  size  may  be 
reduced  to  easily  fit  into  a  letter  envelope ;  when  again  moistened 
and  prepared  it  will  almost  fill  a  half-bushel  measure.     Many 
plants  treated  by  this  method  will  recover  their  original  form  and 
color  when  again  soaked  in  water.    Some  vegetable  mixtures  are 
pressed  into  forms  like  cakes  of  chocolate  and  simply  wrapped 
in  a  paper  or  put  into  tin  pails.    Dried  spinach  is  packed  in  tin 
boxes,  and  a  vegetable  mixture  for  soups  is  sold  in  small  card- 
board boxes.    If  moisture  is  kept  away  from  these  products  they 
will  keep  any  length  of  time  without  losing  their  value.    Potatoes, 
carrots,  peas,  and  beans  all  may  be  preserved  in  the  same  way. 

Sunlight  Drying. — The  simple  method  of  exposure  to  sunlight 
was  practiced  universally  until  recently.  In  California  and  other 
sections,  which  are  free  from  excessive  moisture,  open-air  drying 
is  still  extensively  employed.  The  fruit  is  cleaned,  cut,  then 
placed  cut  side  up  on  wooden  trays,  about  three  by  seven  feet  in 
size,  sterilized  with  sulfur  fumes,  and  placed  in  the  sunlight 
for  five  days,  or  until  sufficiently  dry. 


232 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FIG.    117. — Drying  raspberries. 


FIG.   118. — A  homemade  drier. 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS       23 3 

It  is  important  to  protect  drying  fruits  from  the  rain,  dew, 
dust,  and  insects. 

Placing  it  in  a  screened  rack  or  under  glass  or  mosquito 
netting  will  protect  it  from  flying  insects,  and  crawling  insects 
may  be  kept  away  by  standing  the  racks  or  table  legs  in  pans 
of  water  (Fig.  117).  The  drying  can  also  be  expedited  by  a 
proper  arrangement  of  the  fruit  on  the  trays.  It  should  always 
be  placed  in  single  layers,  because  piling  it  up  prolongs  the  dry- 
ing process.  Evaporation  of  the  water  diminishes  the  bulk,  so 
that  later  the  contents  of  several  trays  may  be  put  on  one.  This 
simplifies  the  amount  of  handling.  During  the  first  two  days 
the  pieces  of  fruit  should  be  turned  several  times  to  aid  in  the 
process  of  drying.  This  is  especially  true  of  large  fruits,  such  as 
peaches,  pears,  and  apples.  Simple  devices  for  drying  fruits  can 
easily  be  made.  Unless  the  weather  conditions  are  ideal  the 
product  dried  in  the  sun  is  liable  to  become  discolored  and  moldy. 
This  method  of  drying  requires  considerable  labor. 

DRIERS  OR   EVAPORATORS 

Vegetables  and  fruits  can  be  dried  in  an  oven,  in  trays  or  racks 
over  the  kitchen  stove,  or  in  a  specially  constructed  drier.  There 
are  small  driers  on  the  market  which  give  satisfactory  results. 
The  small  cook-stove  driers  or  evaporators  are  small,  oven-like 
structures,  usually  made  of  galvanized  sheet  iron,  or  of  wood  and 
galvanized  iron.  They  are  of  such  a  size  that  they  can  be  placed 
on  the  top  of  an  ordinary  \vood  or  coal  range  or  a  kerosene  stove. 
These  driers  hold  a  series  of  small  trays  on  which  fruits  or  vege- 
tables are  placed  after  being  prepared  for  drying.  Portable 
outdoor  evaporators  are  especially  convenient  when  it  is  desired 
to  dry  as  much  as  ten  bushels  of  fruit  or  vegetables  per  day.  They 
are  usually  constructed  of  wood,  except  the  parts  in  direct  contact 
with  the  heater.  The  homemade  dry  kiln  used  in  some  sections  of 
the  country  can  be  cheaply  and  easily  made  (p.  229). 

A  Homemade  Drier  (Fig.  118). — Make  a  frame  about  thirty- 
six  inches  long  and  eighteen  inches  wide,  which  will  hold  three 
movable  shelves.  The  frame  of  the  shelves  or  trays  is  made  of  two 
pieces  of  wood,  one  inch  by  eighteen  inches,  and  two  pieces,  one 


234 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


inch  by  thirty-six  inches,  and  is  covered  with  white  cheesecloth  or 
pieces  of  flour  sack  which  have  been  washed  thoroughly.  Place 
these  trays  about  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  framework  of  the 
drier.  Stretch  wire  netting  or  white  mosquito  netting  over  the  top 
and  sides  to  keep  away  the  flies  and  insects.  Supports  made  of 


FIG.   119.— A  reflector  drier. 


nails  or  pieces  of  metal  and  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  bottom 
of  the  frame  will  permit  its  being  used  on  the  back  of  the  stove 
in  damp,  cloudy  weather. 

A  Reflector  Drier  (Fig.  119). — Select  a  small,  strong  box  and 
remove  all  sides  but  the  bottom  and  back  and  replace  these  with 
pieces  of  glass.  Paint  the  inside  of  the  bottom  and  back  of  the  box 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS 


235 


white.  These  white  surfaces  reflect  the  sunlight,  which  causes  a 
rise  of  temperature  on  the  inside.  This  shortens  the  process  of 
drying  the  fruit.  Leave  small  openings  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  through  which  the  air  passes.  Place  the  fruit  or  vegetable  in 
the  box,  and  do  not  remove  until  dried  thoroughly. 

Homemade  Cook-stove  Drier  (Fig.  120)  f — A  drier  that  can 
be  used  on  a  wood  or  coal  range  or  a  kerosene  stove  can  be  easily 
A  B 


n 


FIG.    120. — A.  Homemade  cook-stove  drier.   B.  Sectional  view  showing  the  passage  of  the 

heated  air. 

and  cheaply  made.  Dimensions :  Base,  24  X  15  inches ;  height,  36 
inches.  A  base  six  inches  high  is  made  of  galvanized  sheet  iron. 
This  base  slightly  flares  toward  the  bottom  and  has  two  small 
openings  for  ventilation  in  each  of  the  four  sides.  On  the  base 
rests  a  box-like  frame  made  of  one  or  one  and  one-half  inch 
strips  of  wood.  The  two  sides  are  braced  with  one  and  one-quar- 
ter inch  strips  which  serve  as  cleats  on  which  the  trays  in  the  drier 
rest.  These  are  placed  at  intervals  of  three  inches.  The  frame 
is  covered  with  tin  or  galvanized  sheet  iron.  This  is  tacked  to 
the  wooden  strips  of  the  frame.  Thin  strips  of  wood  may  be  used 


236  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

instead  of  tin  or  sheet  iron.  The  door  is  fitted  011  small  hinges 
and  fastened  with  a  latch.  It  opens  wide  so  that  the  trays  can  be 
easily  removed.  The  bottom  in  the  drier  is  made  of  a  piece  of 
perforated  galvanized  sheet  iron.  Two  inches  above  the  bottom 
is  placed  a  solid  sheet  of  galvanized  iron  which  is  three  inches  less 
in  length  and  width  than  the  bottom.  This  sheet  rests  on  two 
wires  fastened  in  the  corners  of  the  drier.  This  prevents  the 
direct  heat  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  product  and  serves 
as  a  radiator  to  spread  the  heat  more  evenly. 

The  first  tray  is  placed  three  inches  above  the  radiator.  The 
trays  rest  on  the  cleats  three  inches  apart.  A  drier  of  the  given 
dimensions  will  hold  eight  trays.  The  frame  of  the  tray  is 
made  of  one-inch  strips,  on  which  is  tacked  galvanized  screen 
wire,  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  tray.  The  tray  is  21  X  15 
inches,  making  it  three  inches  less  in  depth  than  the  drier.  The 
lowest  tray,  when  placed  in  the  drier,  is  even  with  the  front, 
leaving  the  three-inch  space  in  the  back.  The  next  tray  is  pushed 
to  the  back,  leaving  a  three-inch  space  in  the  front.  The  other 
trays  alternate  in  the  same  way.  This  permits  the  hot  currents 
of  heated  air  to  pass  around  and  over  the  trays.  A  ventilator 
opening  is  left  in  the  top  of  the  drier  through  which  the  moist  air 
may  pass  away. 

The  principle  of  construction  is  that  currents  of  heated  air 
pass  over  the  product  as  well  as  up  through  it,  gathering  the 
moisture  and  passing  away.  The  movement  of  the  current  of  air 
induces  a  more  rapid  and  uniform  drying.  The  upper  trays  can 
be  shifted  to  the  lower  part  of  the  drier  and  the  lower  trays  to 
the  upper  part  as  drying  proceeds,  so  as  to  dry  the  product  uni- 
formly throughout. 

In  order  to  secure  the  best  results  of  evaporation  it  is  neces- 
sary to  run  the  temperature  as  high  as  possible  without  injury  to 
the  fruit,  and  to  keep  the  air  in  rapid  circulation  throughout  the 
chamber.  It  is  under  these  conditions  that  the  slight  chemical 
changes  in  perfectly  evaporated  fruit  take  place.  The  albumin, 
instead  of  being  slowly  dried,  is  coagulated  and  greatly  assists  in 
the  preservation  of  the  fruit  with  the  richness  and  flavor  it 
possessed  in  its  natural  state. 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  337 

It  is  important  to  know  the  temperature  of  the  heat  in  the 
drier,  and  this  cannot  be  determined  very  accurately  except  by 
using  a  thermometer.  An  inexpensive  thermometer  reading  de- 
grees from  100°  Fahrenheit  to  200°  Fahrenheit,  or  thereabout, 
can  be  suspended  in  the  drier.  If  a  thermometer  is  not  used  the 
greatest  care  should  be  given  to  the  regulation  of  the  heat.  The 
temperature  in  the  drier  rises  rather  quickly,  and  the  product 
may  scorch  unless  close  attention  is  given. 

DRYING  FRUITS 

The  dried  fruits  are  not  only  important  foods  for  the  house 
hold,  but  because  they  contain  valuable  food  material  in  concen 
trated  form  they  are  convenient  foodstuff  for  the  traveller  and 
explorer. 

In  very  dry  climates  fruits  are  usually  dried  in  the  sun. 
Most  fruits  dried  in  the  sun  discolor  unless  especially  treated. 
For  drying  fruits  in  small  quantities  for  home  use  the  drier 
is  more  satisfactory.  On  very  hot,  dry  days  fruit  may  be 
dried  in  the  sun  until  surface  begins  to  wrinkle,  then  finished  in 
the  drier.  Only  fresh  ripe  fruits  should  be  used.  Ripe  fruits  dry 
more  quickly  than  unripe  and  retain  a  better  color. 

The  ideal  moisture  content  of  dried  fruits  is  about  twenty-five 
per  cent.  The  ability  to  judge  accurately  as  to  when  the  fruit  has 
reached  the  proper  condition  for  removal  from  drier  can  only  be 
gained  by  experience.  When  sufficiently  dried  it  should  be  so 
dry  that  it  is  impossible  to  press  water  out  of  the  freshly  cut  ends 
of  the  pieces,  and  will  not  show  any  of  the  natural  grain  of  the 
fruit  on  being  broken  and  yet  not  so  dry  that  it  will  snap  or 
crackle.  It  should  be  leathery  and  pliable. 

Before  spreading  fruit  on  the  trays  of  the  drier  line  the  tray 
with  wrapping  paper  or  cheesecloth.  There  is  a  possibility  of  the 
acid  of  the  fruit  acting  upon  the  zinc.  After  drying,  cool  quickly, 
as  fruit  when  cooled  slowly  shrivels  and  looks  unattractive. 

Apples. — It  is  not  advisable  to  dry  early  varieties  of  apples, 
because  they  lack  firmness  of  texture.  The  fruit  must  be  carefully 
pared  and  cored,  with  all  blemishes  removed.  Sometimes,  in 
commercial  plants,  after  the  apples  are  sliced  they  are  subjected 


238 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulfur  to  bleach  them  and  to  prevent 
further  discoloration.  This  practice  is  not  advisable  for  home 
use. 

Apples  are  often  sliced  in  rings,  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
or  they  are  'quartered.  The  rings  dry  more  quickly  than  the 
quarters  (Fig.  121).  Arrange  the  slices  in  single  layers  on  the 
trays.  Place  these  in  the  sun  or  in  an  evaporator  until  the  apples 
are  dry.  If  sunlight  drying  is  practiced  the  apples  should  be 
brought  indoors  every  night  and  each  morning  returned  to  the 
sun  until  the  apples  are  dry.  Usually  this  process  will  require 
three  or  four  days.  In  the  evaporator  only  four  to  six  hours  are 
necessary  to  dry  the  fruit.  Have  the  temperature  at  110°  Fahren- 
heit to  begin  with,  and  raise  it  gradually  to  140°  Fahrenheit.  The 
fruit  should  be  so  dry  that  when  a  handful  of  slices  is  pressed 
together  firmly  into  a  ball  the  slices  will  be  springy  enough  to 
separate  at  once  upon  being  released  from  the  hand.  The  texture 
of  the  fruit  as  it  is  handled  should  be  soft,  velvety,  and  leathery. 
Pack  the  slices  neatly  into  pasteboard  boxes  which  have  been  lined 
with  paraffin  paper,  or  tie  in  paper  sacks  and  store  in  tin  boxes 
in  a  dry  place  to  protect  from  insects  and  dust. 

Dried  apple  cores  and  skins  are  evaporated  separately  in  the 

same  way  as  the  fruit.  When 
properly  cured  they  possess  com- 
mercial value  in  home  and  for- 
eign markets  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  jellies  and  vinegars. 

Apricots.  —  It  is  necessary  to 
start  the  drying  of  apricots  with 
a  higher  temperature  (130° 
Fahrenheit),  because  they  con- 
tain a  high  percentage  of  water. 
After  two  or  three  hours  turn 
the  fruit  and  lower  the  heat. 
Continue  the  process  as  for 


FIG.   121.—  Sliced  apples  on  a  wooden  tray.  Peacnes    (?•  * 

Berries.  —  Heating  the  fruits 
carefully  in  a  moderate  oven  for  a  short  while  before  and  after 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS 


239 


sunning  insures  a  better  product  if  sunlight  drying  is  practiced. 
Raspberries. — Black  or  purple  raspberries  are  best  for  dry- 
ing.   Pick  carefully  in  shallow  trays  to  prevent  bruising.     Sort, 


FIG.   122. — Drying  figs  in  California. 


FIG.  123. — Drying  peaches  in  California.    Trays  stacked  for  finishing  off. 

selecting  only  sound  berries,  wash  lightly,  and  place  between  tea 
towels  or  in  the  sun  to  dry  off  surface  moisture.  Spread  them 
in  thin  layers  on  the  trays  or  racks  to  dry.  Raise  the  temperature 


240  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

gradually  from  110°  to  125°  Fahrenheit  in  about  two  hours.  Do 
not  raise  temperature  higher  than  130°  Fahrenheit  until  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  moisture  has  evaporated,  as  otherwise  there 
will  be  expansion  and  loss  of  juice  by  dripping.  This  is  accom- 
panied by  loss  of  flavor  and  color.  Finish  drying  berries  at  140° 
for  two  or  three  hours.  It  is  necessary  to  dry  berries  from  four 
to  five  hours. 

Cherries. — Wash,  dry  off  surface  moisture  before  spreading 
unseeded  cherries  in  thin  layers  on  trays.  If  cherries  are  seeded 
there  will  be  a  loss  of  juice.  Dry  from  three  to  four  hours  at  a 
temperature  of  110°  to  150°  Fahrenheit.  Raise  temperature 
gradually. 

Figs  (Fig.  122). — 1.  Select  two  quarts  of  perfect  whole  figs, 
allow  them  to  stand  in  a  gallon  of  lime  water  (one  ounce  of  lime 
to  one  gallon  of  water)  for  one  hour.  Remove  the  figs  from  the 
lime  water  and  stand  in  clear,  cold  water  for  half  an  hour.  Drain 
the  figs  well  and  drop  them  into  boiling  syrup.  Make  syrup  by 
boiling  together  one  quart  of  sugar  and  one  quart  of  water  for 
ten  minutes.  Cook  the  figs  rapidly  in  this  syrup  for  forty  or  fifty 
minutes,  remove  the  figs  from  the  syrup,  drain  and  place  on  trays 
or  platters  in  the  sun  for  several  days,  or  place  them  in  single 
layers  on  trays  in  the  evaporator  for  three  hours  at  a  temperature 
from  130°  to  150°  Fahrenheit.  If  dried  in  the  sun  the  figs  should 
be  turned  each  day  and  the  tray  should  be  brought  indoors  at 
night.  It  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  tray  covered  with  glass  or 
cheesecloth  to  protect  the  fruit  from  insects.  During  the  time  the 
figs  are  drying,  if  it  should  rain,  keep  them  in  an  oven  at  a 
very  low  temperature. 

2.  Select  three  quarts  of  firm,  sound  figs  and  drop  them  into 
boiling  lye  solution  (two  tablespoonfuls  of  lye  to  two  quarts  of 
water)  for  one  minute.  Lift  them  out  carefully  and  put  through 
two  cold  baths,  then  drop  into  lime  water,  using  one  ounce  of  lime 
to  a  gallon  of  water;  allow  the  figs  to  stand  in  this  lime  water 
for  an  hour,  drain  well,  and  rinse  in  clear  water.  Drop  them 
into  a  syrup  which  you  have  made  by  using  one  quart  of  sugar 
and  one  quart  of  water,  cook  the  figs  in  this  syrup  rapidly  until 
they  are  clear,  drain,  and  place  them  stems  up  on  the  platter  in 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  241 

the  sun  and  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  sun  or  in  a  cool  oven 
until  they  are  thoroughly  dried.  Three  to  four  hours  in  an 
evaporator  at  a  temperature  from  130°  to  150°  Fahrenheit  will 
dry  them  sufficiently. 

Peaches  (Fig.  123). — Peaches  are  usually  cut  in  halves,  and 
may  be  evaporated  with  or  without  being  peeled.  Cut  in  halves, 
pit,  lay  in  trays  pit  side  up,  and  dry  at  a  temperature  of  110° 
Fahrenheit  to  140°  Fahrenheit  for  four  to  six  hours.  Sometimes 
they  are  dropped  into  a  thin  syrup  before  being  dried.  This  gives 
a  better  flavor  and  color  with  some  varieties  of  peaches. 

Pears. — Pare,  core,  and  cut  fruit  into  eighths.  As  pears  dis- 
color quickly,  do  not  let  stand  long  before  drying.  To  prevent 
discoloration,  as  the  fruit  is  prepared  it  may  be  dipped  for  one 
minute  into  a  cold  salt  bath,  using  one  ounce  of  salt  to  one  gallon 
of  water.  Dry  off  surface  moisture  and  put  into  the  evaporator, 
having  the  temperature  110°  Fahrenheit,  raising  temperature 
gradually  to  150°  Fahrenheit.  Dry  for  four  to  six  hours,  and 
longer  if  necessary.  Pears  may  also  be  steamed  ten  minutes  be- 
fore drying. 

Plums. — Select  medium  ripe  plums,  cover  with  boiling  water, 
and  cover  the  vessel  and  let  stand  twenty  minutes.  Small,  thin- 
fleshed  varieties  are  not  suitable  for  drying.  Drain,  remove  sur- 
face moisture,  and  dry  for  four  to  six  hours,  raising  the  tem- 
perature gradually  from  110°  to  150°  Fahrenheit. 

Storing  Dried  Fruits. — After  trays  are  removed  from  the 
evaporator,  such  fruit  as  apples,  peaches,  etc.,  is  put  into  bins, 
where  it  is  stirred  occasionally  and  allowed  to  remain  until  it 
passes  through  the  sweating  process.  The  fruit  is  again  sorted  ac- 
cording to  appearance  and  quality  before  storing.  The  purpose 
in  storing  a  dried  product  is  to  protect  it  from  moisture,  dust, 
and  insects.  Sometimes  spoilage  is  caused  by  lack  of  proper 
storage.  Any  food  which  has  been  properly  dried  will  keep  in 
paper  bags  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  a  fairly  dry  room  in- 
definitely unless  attacked  by  insects.  The  bags  should  be  double- 
tied  or  sealed  (see  p.  247)  to  protect  them  from  the  dust.  A 
safer  way  to  store  dried  fruits  would  be  to  put  these  bags  into  tin 
buckets  or  boxes  with  tightly  fitting  covers. 
16 


242  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Preparation  of  Dried  Fruits  for  Use. — Failure  to  serve  dried 
fruits  in  attractive  ways  is  due  usually  to  not  soaking  them  long 
enough  before  cooking,  and  to  adding  sugar  too  early  in  their 
preparation.  Dried  fruits,  like  dried  vegetables,  require  long 
soaking  in  plenty  of  water,  and  must  be  allowed  to  come  slowly 
to  a  boil  and  then  to  boil  gently  until  the  fruit  is  plump  and 
tender. 

DRYING  VEGETABLES 

Equally  as  great  care  should  be  given  to  the  selection  and 
preparation  of  vegetables  for  drying  as  for  canning.  To  secure 
a  fine  quality  of  dried  products  much  depends  upon  having  the 
vegetables  absolutely  fresh,  young,  tender,  and  perfectly  clean. 
Wash  all  vegetables  and  clean  well.  If  steel  knives  are  used  in 
paring  and  cutting,  have  them  clean  and  bright,  so  as  not  to  dis- 
color the  vegetable. 

After  vegetables  are  prepared  properly  they  are  then  blanched. 
The  blanch  gives  a  more  thorough  cleaning,  removes  the  strong 
odor  and  flavor  from  certain  kinds  of  vegetables,  and  softens  and 
loosens  the  fiber.  This  allows  the  moisture  in  the  vegetable  to 
evaporate  more  quickly  and  uniformly.  It  also  quickly  coagulates 
the  albuminous  matter  in  the  vegetables  which  helps  to  hold  in 
the  natural  flavors.  Blanching  consists  of  plunging  the  vegetable 
into  boiling  water  for  a  short  time.  Use  a  wire  basket  or  cheese- 
cloth bag  for  this.  After  blanching  the  required  number  of 
minutes,  drain  well  and  remove  surface  moisture  from  vegetables 
by  placing  between  two  towels  or  by  exposing  to  the  sun  and  air 
for  a  short  time. 

The  vegetable  thus  prepared  is  spread  in  a  thin  layer  on  the 
trays  of  the  drier.  The  temperature  for  drying  should  be  rather 
low  to  prevent  scorching  the  product.  For  most  vegetables,  after 
surface  moisture  is  removed,  begin  drying  at  a  temperature  of 
110°  Fahrenheit.  Increase  temperature  gradually  from  110°  to 
145°  Fahrenheit.  Complete  drying  for  most  vegetables  in  two  or 
three  hours.  The  time  required  for .  drying  vegetables  varies ; 
however,  it  can  easily  be  determined  by  a  little  experience.  The 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  243 

material  should  be  stirred  or  turned  several  times  during  the 
drying  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform  product. 

Green  String  Beans. — All  varieties  of  string  beans  can  be 
dried.  Wash  and  string  beans  carefully.  The  very  young  and 
tender  string  bean  can  be  dried  whole.  Those  that  are  full 
grown  should  be  cut  in  one-quarter  to  one-inch  lengths  with  a 
vegetable  slicer  or  a  sharp  knife.  It  is  better  to  cut  beans  than 
snap  them.  They  are  then  put  in  a  bag  of  cheesecloth  or  in  a 
wire  basket  and  blanched  in  boiling  water  for  six  to  ten  minutes, 
depending  on  the  maturity  of  the  bean.  One-half  teaspoonful 
of  soda  may  be  added  to  each  gallon  of  boiling  water  to  help  set 
the  green  color  in  the  bean.  Remove  surface  moisture  according 
to  directions  given  above.  Begin  drying  at  a  temperature  of  110° 
Fahrenheit  and  raise  temperature  gradually  to  145°  Fahrenheit, 
Wax  beans  are  dried  in  the  same  manner  as  the  green  string 
beans. 

Lima  Beans. — Lima  beans  can  be  shelled  from  the  pod  and 
dried.  If  gathered  before  maturity,  when  young  and  tender,  wash 
and  blanch  for  five  to  ten  minutes.  Length  of  time  for  blanching 
depends  upon  size  and  maturity  of  bean.  Remove  surface 
moisture  and  dry  for  three  to  three  and  one-half  hours  at  the  tem- 
perature given  for  string  beans. 

Dry  Shelled  Beans. — Different  kinds  of  beans,  after  maturing 
and  drying  on  the  vines,  can  be  treated  as  follows :  Shell,  wash, 
and  spread  in  thin  layers  on  the  trays  of  the  drier  and  heat  ten 
minutes,  beginning  at  160°  Fahrenheit  and  gradually  raising  the 
temperature  to  180°  Fahrenheit.  This  high  temperature  will 
destroy  all  insect  eggs  that  might  be  on  the  beans.  Cowpeas  or 
any  field  pea  can  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  Cool  and  store 
carefully.  It  might  be  added  that  the  heating  of  the  bean  or 
pea  destroys  its  vitality  and  thus  treated  cannot  be  used  for  seed 
purposes. 

Garden  Peas. — When  drying  the  very  young  and  tender  sugar 
peas,  use  the  pod  also.  Wash  and  cut  in  one-quarter  inch  pieces, 
blanch  in  boiling  water  six  minutes,  remove  surface  moisture, 
and  dry  the  same  length  of  time  and  at  the  same  temperature  as 


244  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

string  beans.    It  is  not  necessary  to  use  soda  when  blanching  peas. 

The  garden  pea,  which  has  a  non-edible  pod,  is  shelled  and 
blanched  for  three  to  five  minutes.  Remove  surface  moisture, 
spread  in  a  single  layer  on  trays,  and  dry  for  three  to  three  and 
one-half  hours.  Begin  drying  at  110°  Fahrenheit,  raise  tem- 
perature very  slowly  in  about  one  and  one-half  hours  to  145° 
Fahrenheit.  Continue  drying  one  and  one-half  or  two  hours  at 
145°  Fahrenheit. 

Sweet  Corn. — Select  very  young  and  tender  corn,  and  pre- 
pare at  once  after  gathering.  Boil  or  steam  on  the  cob  six  to 
eight  minutes  to  set  the  milk.  To  improve  flavor  a  teaspoonful 
of  salt  to  a  gallon  of  water  may  be  used.  Drain  well  and  cut  corn 
from  the  cob,  using  a  very  sharp  and  flexible  knife.  Cut  grains 
fine,  only  half  way  down  to  the  cob,  and  scrape  out  the  remainder 
of  grain,  being  careful  not  to  scrape  off  any  of  the  chaff  next 
to  the  cob.  Dry  from  three  to  four  hours  at  a  temperature  of 
110°  to  145°  Fahrenheit.  When  field  corn  is  used,  good,  plump 
roasting  ear  stage  is  the  proper  degree  of  ripeness.  A  pound  of 
dried  corn  per  dozen  ears  is  an  average  yield.  This  method  gives 
a  delicious  product  which  is  easily  kept. 

Corn  may  be  dried  in  the  sun.  Dry  in  oven  for  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes  and  finish  drying  in  the  sun.  Sun  drying  is,  of  course, 
not  satisfactory  in  damp  weather,  and  the-  dried  product  will  be 
darker  in  color  and  not  as  attractive  in  appearance.  When  dried 
in  the  sun  it  should  be  heated  in  the  oven  to  kill  insect  eggs  before 
storing. 

Carrots  and  Parsnips. — Clean,  scrape  or  pare,  and  slice  in 
one-eighth  inch  slices.  Blanch  for  six  minutes,  remove  surface 
moisture,  and  dry  for  two  and  one-half  to  three  hours.  Begin 
drying  at  110°  Fahrenheit,  and  raise  the  temperature  gradually 
to  150°  Fahrenheit.  Kohlrabi,  celeriac,  and  salsify  are  dried  by 
the  same  method. 

Beets. — Boil  the  whole  beets  without  peeling  until  a  little 
more  than  three-fourths  done.  Dip  in  cold  water,  peel,  and  slice 
in  one-eighth  or  one-quarter  inch  slices.  Dry  for  two  and  one- 
half  to  three  hours  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  150°  Fahrenheit. 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS       245 

Okra. — Wash,  blanch  for  three  minutes  in  boiling  soda  water 
(one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  one  gallon  of  water),  and 
dry  for  two  to  three  hours  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  140° 
Fahrenheit.  Dry  young  and  small  tender  pods  whole.  Older 
pods  should  be  cut  into  one-quarter  inch  slices.  Small,  tender 
pods  are  sometimes  strung  on  a  string  and  hung  over  the  stove 
to  dry.  If  dried  in  this  manner,  heat  in  the  oven  before  storing. 

Onions  and  Leek. — Wash,  peel,  and  slice  onions  in  one-eighth 
to  one-quarter  inch  slices.  To  avoid  any  unpleasantness,  peel  and 
slice  holding  under  water.  Blanch  in  boiling  water  for  five  min- 
utes, remove  surface  moisture,  dry  for  two  and  one-half  to  three 
hours,  beginning  at  110°  Fahrenheit  and  raising  temperature 
gradually  to  140°  Fahrenheit.  Leek  is  cut  in  one-quarter  inch 
strips  and  dried  as  onions. 

Peppers. — Peppers  may  be  dried  by  splitting  on  one  side,  re- 
moving seed,  drying  in  the  air,  and  finishing  drying  in  the  drier 
at  140°  Fahrenheit.  A  more  satisfactory  method  is  to  place 
peppers  on  a  biscuit  pan  in  a  hot  oven  and  heat  until  the  skin 
blisters.  Peel,  split  in  half,  take  out  seed,  and  dry  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  110°  to  140°  Fahrenheit.  In  drying  thick-fleshed  pep- 
pers like  the  pimiento,  do  not  increase  heat  too  quickly,  but  dry 
slowly  and  evenly.  Small  varieties  of  red  peppers  may  be  spread 
in  the  sun  until  wilted,  and  the  drying  finished  in  the  drier,  or 
they  may  be  entirely  dried  in  the  sun. 

Pumpkin  and  Summer  Squash. — Pare  and  cut  in  about  one- 
half  inch  strips  and  blanch  for  three  minutes,  remove  surface 
moisture,  and  dry  slowly  for  three  to  four  hours,  raising  tempera- 
ture from  110°  to  140°  Fahrenheit. 

Vegetable  Soup  Mixtures. — Each  vegetable  used  in  the  soup 
mixture  is  prepared  and  dried  separately.  They  are  put  together 
in  different  proportions,  the  desired  vegetable  predominating.  A 
combination  of  several  vegetables  makes  a  most  desirable  soup 
mixture.  Those  most  often  used  are  carrots,  cabbage,  onions, 
celery,  and  okra. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage  is  shredded  or  cut  into  strips  a  few  inches 
long.  Blanch  for  ten  minutes,  drain,  remove  surface  moisture, 


246  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

and  dry  for  three   hours   at   a   temperature  of  110°    to   145° 
Fahrenheit. 

Mushrooms. — Only  dry  mushrooms  may  be  successfully 
cured.  Use  mature  mushrooms  for  drying.  After  they  have  been 
peeled,  place  them  in  single  layers,  with  caps  down,  on  boards 
or  drying  racks,  exposing  them  to  the  hot  sun  and  air.  Turn 
the  mushrooms  frequently.  Bring  the  trays  indoors  each  night,  as 
the  mushrooms  absorb  moisture  rapidly.  Finish  them  off  by  put- 
ting them  in  the  oven  or  evaporator  for  one  hour  at  130°  to  140° 
Fahrenheit.  When  they  are  brittle,  run  them  through  a  spice  or 
a  coffee  mill.  Pack  the  mushroom  powder  at  once  into  dry 
bottles  and  seal  tightly.  Dried  mushroom  powder  keeps  well,  and 
this  is  a  delicious  flavoring  to  use  in  meat  gravies  made  with  milk. 
Whole  mushrooms  may  be  dried  by  the  same  method.  After  they 
are  soaked  they  resemble  the  fresh  ones,  with  the  exception  of 
being  a  little  more  tough. 

Dried  Celery  and  Parsley  Leaves. — Celery  and  parsley 
leaves  can  be  dried  in  the  shade  or  for  two  hours  in  a  cool  oven 
(110°  to  130°  Fahrenheit).  The  temperature  should  be  raised 
gradually.  These  leaves  may  be  mixed  in  equal  parts  and  pow- 
dered. Put  the  dried  leaves  through  a  spice  mill,  or  use  a  rolling 
pin  for  pulverizing  them.  This  combination  makes  a  good  sea- 
soning for  soups  and  stuffings.  It  should  be  stored  in  cans  or 
jars  air-tight,  otherwise  it  will  soften  on  standing. 

Legumes. — Dried  mature  legumes  are  not  only  cheap,  but 
they  are  rich  in  nourishment.  Baked  beans,  for  example,  furnish 
more  nutriment  than  beef  costing  two  or  three  times  as  much. 

Storing  Dried  Vegetables. — When  vegetables  are  first  taken 
from  the  drier,  if  completely  dried  they  are  very  brittle.  They 
are  more  easily  handled  and  are  in  better  condition  for  storing 
if  allowed  to  stand  one  to  three  hours  to  absorb  enough  moisture 
to  make  them  more  pliable  before  putting  them  into  bags  or 
storing  otherwise.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  store  products  imme- 
diately, and  they  are  allowed  to  stand  for  several  days,  they 
should  be  heated  to  160°  Fahrenheit  to  destroy  any  insect  eggs 
that  might  be  on  them.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  heat  the 
vegetable  higher  than  160°  Fahrenheit. 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  247 

Dried  vegetables  should  always  be  stored  in  moisture-proof 
containers  and  in  a  dry  place,  free  from  dust  and  dirt.  The  best 
container  is  a  tin  box,  bucket,  or  can  fitted  with  a  tight  cover. 
Perhaps  the  most  convenient  and  cheapest  container  is  the  small 
paper  bag.  A  small  amount  should  be  put  into  each  bag,  just 
enough  for  use  in  one  or  two  meals.  This  will  prevent  the  opening 
of  any  dried  product  that  cannot  be  consumed  in  a  short  time. 
The  upper  part  of  the  bag  is  twisted  to  form  a  neck.  The  neck 
is  bent  over  and  tied  tight  with  a  string.  Dip  a  small  brush  into 
melted  paraffin  and  paint  the  entire  bag.  This  makes  the  bag 
practically  moisture  and  insect-proof.  To  further  protect  from 
insect  ravages,  label  and  pack  bags  in  a  tin  container  with  a 
tight-fitting  cover.  A  large  number  of  bags  can  be  stored  in 
an  ordinary  lard  can.  A  glass  jar  with  a  tight  seal  is  a  good  con- 
tainer for  dried  products.  Paraffin-coated  paper  containers  of 
various  sizes  can  be  found  on  the  market.  If  such  containers  are 
used  they  should  also  be  stored  as  the  paper  bags. 

All  dried  products  should  be  examined  occasionally,  and,  upon 
the  first  appearance  of  insects,  spread  in  thin  layers  in  the  sun 
until  insects  disappear ;  heat  to  a  temperature  of  160°  Fahrenheit 
and  restore  carefully. 

Preparation  of  Dried  Vegetables  for  Use. — 1.  Soak  for  sev- 
eral hours  in  warm  or  cold  water  to  absorb  the  moisture  lost 
through  evaporation. 

2.  Drain  and  boil  such  vegetables  as  peas,  beans,  and  spinach 
in  soda  water,  using  about  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  one 
quart  of  water. 

3.  One  tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice  added  to  dried  beans  after 
soaking  them  adds  much  improvement  in  flavor. 

4.  Add  seasoning  to  the  dried  vegetables  to  make  them  more 
palatable — celery,  mustard,  onions,  cheese,  nutmeg,  etc. 

5.  Dried  vegetables  are  used  in  soup,  and  most  deliciously 
flavored  thick  puree  may  be  made  of  them.    Four  ounces  of  dried 
soup  vegetables   (sliced  carrots,  potatoes,  cabbage,  onions,  etc.) 
will  be  sufficient  to  make  three  quarts  to  one  gallon  of  vegetable 
soup. 


248  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

DRYING  HERBS 

"Oh!   who  can  tell  the  hidden  power  of  Herbs, 
And  might  of  magic  spell!" — Spenser. 

The  ancient  housekeeper  was  far  more  interested  than  the 
modern  one  in  gathering  and  drying  her  own  herbs  at  the  right 
season  for  culinary  and  medicinal  uses.  In  the  olden  days  herbs 
were  relied  upon  to  give  variety  to  the  daily  menu  and  for  tonic 
qualities,  while  to-day  the  flavor  only  is  the  dominant  thought. 
A  dash  of  prepared  "kitchen  bouquet"  will  answer  all  purposes. 

French  and  Italian  cooks  excel  in  the  skilful  use  of  the  variety 
of  herbs  in  their  cooking,  while  only  three  or  four  herbs — parsley, 
mint,  sage,  and  thyme — are  generally  used  by  the  American  cooks. 

The  cultivation  of  herbs  has  been  considered  within  the 
woman's  domain  because  of  the  close  relationship  between  herbs 
and  cookery.  In  some  cases  it  has  been  found  profitable  as  a  com- 
mercial enterprise.  The  Durham  mustard  which  is  now  popular 
on  the  market  was  first  prepared  by  a  woman.  Her  ingenuity  in 
making  mustard  flour  and  then  preparing  the  Durham  mustard 
has  won  for*  her  a  worldwide  reputation.  Most  herbs  are  easily 
cultivated,  since  they  are  not  disturbed  by  insects  because  of 
the  essential  oils  found  in  them. 

In  many  communities  or  neighborhoods  herbs  might  be  grown 
cooperatively,  each  kitchen  garden  to  contain  herbs  agreed  upon 
in  advance. 

Picking. — Herbs  should  be  gathered  in  the  morning  after  the 
dew  has  disappeared.  The  blossoms  of  catnip  and  like  herbs  are 
gathered.  The  belief  that  herbs  should  be  gathered  only  when 
in  blossom  is  probably  an  erroneous  one.  When  only  the  leaves 
are  desired  to  dry,  they  should  be  gathered  while  they  are  young 
and  tender.  If  the  leaves  are  picked  when  they  are  young  and 
fresh  a  new  growth  continues  to  come,  and  these  are  as  good  as 
the  first  picking. 

Drying.— Often  the  whole  plant  has  to  be  dried  in  order  not 
to  shake  off  the  seed  pods.  Stems  and  seeds  may  be  spread  out  to 
dry  on  sheets  of  cotton  cloth,  or  dried  on  trays  of  wire  mesh  or  in 
a  fruit  evaporator,  when  one  is  available.  Herbs  which  have  been 
allowed  to  dry  in  the  shade  for  one  day  can  be  quickly  finished 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  349 

by  subjecting  them  to  a  temperature  of  about  110°  to  130° 
Fahrenheit  in  an  oven  or  an  evaporator.  The  length  of  time 
varies  with  the  kind  of  herb  being  dried.  The  following  herbs 
will  dry  sufficiently  in  the  time  given,  if  the  temperature  of  110° 
to  130°  Fahrenheit  is  kept  uniform : 


Parsley 
Sage 
Mint 

for  about 
for  about 
for  about 

hour  30  minutes 
hour  10  minutes 
hour 

Thyme 
Savory 

for  about 
for  about 

hour 
hour 

Marjoram  for  about  45  minutes 

Tarragon,  basil,  chives,  and  spearmint  can  also  be  dried. 

Feli. — Young,  tender  sassafras  leaves  are  gathered  in  the  early 
spring,  dried  and  powdered.  The  French  use  this  in  gumbo  and 
for  seasoning  and  thickening  gravies  and  sauces. 

Sweet  Bay  Leaves. — Sweet  bay  leaves  are  gathered  while  still 
young  and  tender  and  dried  in  the  shade  and  bottled  to  use  for 
seasoning. 

Peppers. — Small  hot  peppers  are  strung  on  cord  and  hung  up 
to  dry  slowly  in  the  shade. 

Storing  Herbs. — An  attractive  way  to  pack  herbs  is  to  wrap 
them  carefully  in  wax  paper  and  place  in  small  cans  or  packages. 
Dried  leaves  may  be  packed  in  glass  jars,  and  powdered  herbs 
are  more  often  packed  in  narrow-necked  bottles.  The  herbs  are 
less  liable  to  become  moldy  if  they  are  kept  dry  and  closed  from 
the  dust.  When  leaves  and  blossoms  are  to  be  packed  they  must 
be  clean  and  free  from  stems.  Herbs  such  as  anise,  coriander, 
caraway,  fennel,  lovage,  and  horehound  are  often  used  in  confec- 
tionery. Angelica  is  valued  for  its  stems,  and  it  is  sometimes 
candied.  Iris  root,  dried  lavender,  sweet  grass,  clover  blossoms, 
and  rose  petals  have  been  used  from  time  immemorial  by  house- 
wives to  perfume  their  linen  closets. 

Medicinal  Herbs. — Since  domestic  medicinal  remedies  are  no 
longer  made,  the  growing  of  medicinal  herbs  is  not  common,  but 
it  might  still  be  made  a  source  of  income  in  a  limited  way. 

An  article  in  the  United  States  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  1903  states:  "As  a  result  of  such  a  study  of  the 


250  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

situation  as  has  thus  far  been  practicable,  the  Southern  States 
seem  to  offer  many  advantages  for  the  prospective  drug  grower. 
The  long-growing  season  needed  for  many  drug  plants,  the  low 
price  of  labor,  and  the  usual  low  price  of  land  combine  to  make 
sections  of  the  South  seem  promising  in  this  connection." 

Herbs  which  can  sometimes  be  sold  to  local  druggists  are  as 
follows : 

Boneset  Tansy  leaves  and  blossoms 

Catnip  Yarrow  leaves  and  blossoms 

Mullein  Wintergreen  leaves 

Sage  Red  raspberry  leaves 

Lobelia  Jimson-weed  leaves 

Motherwort  Red  clover 
Basswood  flower 

Bark. — The  bark  is  peel,  so  that  none  of  the  wood  is  left. 
Blackhaw,  cherry,  poplar,  and  Wahoo  barks  may  be  sold  in  small 
quantities  and  usually  bring  from  three  to  eight  cents  a  pound. 
In  some  cases  the  bark  of  the  root  is  called  for,  such  as  the  bark 
of  the  Wahoo  and  Blackhaw  roots,  and  these  bring  from  ten  to 
twenty  cents  per  pound. 

Seeds. — Pumpkin,  sunflower,  lobelia,  prickly  ash  berry,  cara- 
way, dill,  burdock  seed,  and  corn-silk  are  sometimes  sold  for  three 
to  fifteen  cents  per  pound. 

Roots. — Ginseng,  burdock,  bloodroot,  yellow  dock,  mandrake, 
Indian  turnip  or  spikenard  root,  Jack-in-the-pulpit,  and  sarsapa- 
rilla  often  sell  for  three  to  ten  cents  per  pound. 

HOME  STORAGE  OF  VEGETABLES 

To  those  persons  fortunate  enough  to  possess  land  for  the 
growing  of  vegetables  sufficient  in  quantity  for  the  needs  of  the 
family,  storage  is  an  economic  necessity.  Likewise  it  is  an  eco- 
nomic necessity  to  grow  vegetables  to  store.  A  half-acre  garden 
should  produce  far  more  vegetables  than  the  average  family 
can  consume  during  the  maturing  period  of  the  crops.  Only  a 
small  portion  of  the  garden  should  be  planted  to  those  vegetables 
which  must  be  used  as  soon  as  they  reach  maturity.  The  re- 
mainder should  be  devoted  to  crops  that  are  to  be  canned,  dried, 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  251 

or  stored.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  keep  by  storing  such  vege- 
tables as  potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  turnips,  cab- 
bage, celery,  onions,  sweet  potatoes,  dry  beans,  and  dry  lima 
beans.  Some  of  the  crops  may  be  stored  in  the  cellar  under  the 
dwelling,  in  pits  or  banks,  or  in  caves  or  outdoor  cellars.  Others 
can  be  kept  in  any  dry  place,  such  as  the  pantry  or  attic. 

The  Storage  Room  in  the  Basement. — Many  houses  are 
heated  by  a  furnace  in  the  cellar.  The  pipes  are,  as  a  rule,  car- 
ried under  the  joist,  thus  warming  the  cellar  to  some  extent. 
For  this  reason  it  is  best  to  partition  off  a  small  room  in  one 
corner  of  the  cellar  to  serve  as  a  storage-room  for  potatoes,  beets, 
carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  and  turnips.  If  possible,  this  room 
should  have  at  least  one  window  for  the  purpose  of  regulating 
the  temperature.  The  floor  should  not  be  concreted,  as  the  nat- 
ural earth  makes  better  conditions  for  the  keeping  of  vegetables. 
Bins  may  be  constructed  for  the  various  products,  or  they  may 
be  stored  in  boxes,  baskets,  or  barrels.  This  room  will  also  serve 
as  a  storage  place  for  fresh  fruits  and  canned  goods.  The  vege- 
tables to  be  stored  should  be  harvested  when  the  ground  is  dry, 
and  allowed  to  lie  on  the  surface  long  enough  for  the  moisture  to 
dry  off  before  placing  them  in  storage.  The  tops  should  be  re- 
moved from  beets,  turnips,  carrots,  and  salsify  before  placing 
them  in  storage. 

Outdoor  pits  or  banks  are  very  generally  used  for  keeping 
potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  parsnips,  cabbage,  and  salsify. 
Select  a  well-drained  location  and  make  an  excavation.  This  is 
lined  with  straw,  leaves,  or  similar  material,  and  the  vegetables 
placed  in  a  conical  pile  on  the  material.  The  vegetables  are  then 
covered  with  straw  or  similar  material,  and  finally  with  earth  to  a 
depth  of  several  inches.  The  depth  of  the  earth  covering  is  de- 
termined by  the  severity  of  the  winters  in  the  particular  locality. 
It  is  well  to  cover  the  pits  with  straw,  corn  fodder,  or  manure  dur- 
ing severe  weather.  Such  pits  keep  the  above  vegetables  very  well, 
but  have  the  objection  that  it  is  hard  to  get  the  material  out  in 
cold  weather,  and  where  the  pit  is  once  opened  it  is  desirable  to 
remove  the  entire  contents.  For  this  reason  several  small  pits 


252  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

rather  than  one  large  one  should  be  constructed  so  that  the  entire 
contents  may  be  removed  at  one  time.  Instead  of  storing  each 
crop  in  a  pit  by  itself,  it  is  better  to  place  several  vegetables  in 
the  same  pit,  so  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  open  only  one  pit  to 
get  a  supply  of  all  of  them.  In  storing  several  crops  in  the  same 
pit  it  is  a  good  plan  to  separate  them  with  straw,  leaves,  or  other 
material.  The  vegetables  from  the  small  pit  may  be  placed  in  the 
basement  storage-room,  where  they  can  be  easily  secured  as  needed 
for  the  table. 

Cabbage  may  be  stored  in  a  special  kind  of  bank  or  pit.  The 
excavation  is  made  long  and  narrow  and  about  the  same  depth  as 
for  the  other  vegetables.  The  cabbages  are  pulled  and  placed 
in  rows  in  the  pit  with  the  heads  down  and  roots  up.  The  whole 
is  covered  with  dirt;  no  straw  or  litter  need  be  used.  These 
pits  are  made  as  long  as  desired,  as  it  is  possible  to  remove  por- 
tions of  the  stored  product  without  disturbing  the  remainder. 
Cabbage  need  not  be  covered  as  deeply  as  potatoes,  as  slight  freez- 
ing does  not  injure  the  cabbage.  The  heads  of  cabbage  are  some- 
times stored  in  banks  or  pits  in  a  manner  similar  to  potatoes, 
turnips,  etc.  This  method  is  open  to  the  same  objection  as  when 
it  is  used  for  potatoes:  it  is  hard  to  get  at  the  material  when  it 
is  needed.  Another  method  of  storing  cabbage  consists  in  setting 
the  whole  plant  in  trenches  side  by  side  with  the  roots  down  and 
as  close  together  as  they  can  be  placed.  Dirt  is  thrown  over  the 
roots  and  against  the  stalks  to  the  depth  of  several  inches.  A  low 
fence  is  built  around  the  storage  place,  and  rails,  scantling,  or 
other  supports  laid  across  the  top.  About  two  feet  of  straw  or 
other  material  is  then  piled  on  top  of  the  storage  pit. 

Celery  may  be  stored  in  a  modified  type  of  outside  pit,  or  in 
the  row  where  it  is  grown.  When  stored  in  a  pit  or  trench  the 
plants  are  taken  up  and  set  side  by  side  in  a  shallow  pit  a*  close 
together  as  it  is  feasible  to  pack  them,  and  wide  boards  set  up 
along  the  outside  of  the  pit.  Dirt  is  banked  against  these  boards, 
and  the  top  covered  over  with  corn  fodder  or  similar  material. 
When  celery  is  kept  in  the  row  where  it  is  grown  the  earth  is 
banked  up  around  the  plants  as  the  weather  gets  cold.  When 
freezing  weather  occurs  the  dirt  should  be  brought  to  the  tops 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  253 

of  the  plants  and  the  ridge  covered  with  coarse  manure,  straw  or 
fodder,  held  in  place  by  means  of  stakes  or  boards. 

Outdoor  Caves  or  Cellars. — Outdoor  caves  or  cellars  are 
superior  to  banks  or  pits  in  many  respects.  They  require  no 
more  labor  to  store  the  vegetables  than  an  indoor  cellar,  yet 
give  a  uniform  and  low  temperature  during  the  entire  year.  They 
possess  practically  all  the  advantages  of  the  bank  or  pit,  yet  may 
be  entered  at  any  time  during  the  winter  for  the  removal  of  any 
portion  of  the  stored  product  without  endangering  the  keeping 
quality  of  the  material  that  remains.  These  storage  cellars  are 
usually  made  partially  under  ground,  although  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  country  they  are  usually  entirely  above  ground.  In 
sections  where  severe  freezing  occurs  it  is  well  to  have  the  cellar 
partially  under  ground.  In  order  to  avoid  steps  down  to  the  level 
of  the  floor,  with  the  consequent  extra  labor  in  storing  and  re- 
moving the  vegetables,  a  side-hill  location  is  desirable  for  the 
cellar.  An  excavation  is  made  into  the  hill  of  the  approximate 
size  of  the  cellar.  The  dirt  from  this  excavation  may  be  used 
for  covering  the  roof  and  for  banking  against  the  sides  of  the 
structure.  A  frame  should  be  erected  by  setting  posts  in  rows  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pit  near  the  dirt  walls,  sawing  these  off  at  a  uni- 
form height,  placing  plates  on  top  of  the  posts,  and  erecting 
rafters  on  these  plates.  The  whole  should  be  boarded  up  on  the 
outside  of  the  posts,  with  the  exception  of  a  space  for  a  door 
in  one  end.  The  whole  structure,  except  the  door,  is  covered  with 
dirt  and  sod.  The  thickness  of  the  covering  will  be  determined  by 
the  location;  the  colder  the  climate  the  thicker  the  covering. 
The  dirt  covering  may  be  supplemented  by  a  layer  of  manure, 
straw,  corn  fodder,  etc.,  in  winter  time.  Outdoor  cellars  are 
usually  left  with  dirt  floors,  as  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  is 
desirable.  These  cellars  may  also  be  made  of  concrete,  brick, 
stone,  or  other  material.  Such  cellars  are  to  be  found  in  many 
sections  of  the  country,  and  provide  almost  ideal  storage  facilities 
for  potatoes,  beets,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  salsify,  and  celery. 
Sweet  potatoes  should  be  thoroughly  matured  before  harvest- 
ing, dug  while  the  ground  is  dry,  carefully  handled,  and  thor- 
oughly cured  by  holding  them  at  a  temperature  of  80°  to  85° 


254  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Fahrenheit  for  a  week  or  ten  days  after  harvesting.  After  this 
they  should  be  stored  in  a  place  where  the  temperature  remains 
in  the  neighborhood  of  55  °  Fahrenheit.  Such  a  location  is  usually 
near  the  furnace  in  the  cellar,  or  near  the  furnace  chimney  on 
the  second  floor  of  the  house.  There  is  little  merit  in  wrapping 
them  in  paper  or  burying  them  in  sand.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
stored  in  outdoor  pits  or  banks,  but  this  method  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended except  where  no  other  facilities  are  available.  Sweet 
potatoes  stored  in  pits  are  not  as  good  in  quality  as  those  stored 
in  houses. 

Onions  should  be  well  matured  before  harvesting,  and  should 
be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  being  stored.  They 
may  be  put  up  in  baskets,  crates,  or  bags,  and  placed  in  a  cool,  dry 
place.  The  attic  is  better  than  the  cellar  for  storing  onions.  Tem- 
peratures slightly  below  the  freezing-point  do  not  injure  them. 

Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Dried  Products. — Such  vegetables  as 
may  be  kept  in  the  dry  state  should  be  grown  to  as  great  an  extent 
as  possible.  Various  kinds  of  beans,  including  lima  beans,  should 
be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  vines.  Lima  beans  should  be  gathered 
as  they  mature,  and  placed  in  a  warm,  dry  place  until  dry  enough 
to  shell.  Navy  beans  and  kidney  beans  are  usually  harvested 
when  a  maximum  number  of  pods  are  mature  and  the  vines  cured 
like  hay,  after  which  they  are  threshed  or  shelled.  Peas  are 
handled  in  the  same  way  as  navy  beans.  After  the  beans  and  peas 
are  threshed  or  shelled  and  dried  off  they  should  be  placed  in 
bags  and  hung  in  some  dry  place,  such  as  a  closet  or  attic. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  advantages  have  dried  vegetables  and  fruits  over  canned  ones? 

2.  Is  there  any  advantage  in  this  means  of  preservation  in  the  home? 

3.  State  three  essential  steps  in  the  drying  of  herbs,  vegetables,  or  fruits. 

4.  What  special  care  should  be  taken  in  the  storage  of  dried  products? 

5.  What  are  the  principal   causes  of  an  unsatisfactorily  dried  product? 

6.  Why  should  the  use  of  herbs  be  encouraged  in  this  country? 

7.  Suggest  as  many  ways  as  possible  for  the  use  of  dried  vegetables  in  the 

diet. 

8.  What  special  points  should  be  considered  in  the  preparation  of  them? 

9.  What  mistakes  are  often  made  in  the  preparation  of  dried  fruits  for 

serving  ? 


DRYING  FRUITS,  VEGETABLES  AND  HERBS  255 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  ABEL,   AMBROSE,   "  Preservation   of   Food,"    1857.     Published   by   Case, 

Lockwood  &  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn. 

2.  BARROWS,  Miss  ANNA,  "Extension  Course  in  Vegetable  Foods,"  March, 

1916,  Farmers'  Bulletin  123,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. Can  be  purchased  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  10  cents. 

3.  CALDWELL,  J.  S.,  "  Evaporation  of  Apples."  Bulletin   131,  May,   1916. 

Published  by  State  College  of  Washington,  Pullman,  Wash. 

4.  CORBETT,  L.   C.,    "  Raspberries,"    1905,   Farmers'   Bulletin   213,   United 

States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Can  be  procured  from  the  Supt. 
of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

5.  "Creole  Cook  Book,"  1914.     Published  by  The  Picayune,  New  Orleans, 

La.     By  mail,  $1.25. 

6.  GIBBS,  WALTER  M.,  "  Spices  and  How  to  Know  Them,"  1909.    Published 

by  the  Matthews-Northrup  Works,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

7.  GOULD,  H.  P.,  "  Evaporation  of  Apples,"  1907  and  1915,  Farmers'  Bul- 

letin 291,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Can  be  obtained 
from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

8.  HENKEL,  ALICE,  "  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Seeds,"  1913,  Bulletin  26,  B.  P.  I., 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Can  be  purchased  from 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  5  cents. 

9.  HENKEL,  ALICE,  "  Weeds  Used  in  Medicine,"   1904,  Farmers'  Bulletin 

188,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Can  be  purchased 
from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

10.  LEWIS,  C.  I.,  and  BROWN,  W.  S.,  "  Fruit  and  Vegetable  By-products," 

April,  1914,  College  Bulletin  No.  128,  Oregon  Agricultural  College. 
Published  by  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Ore. 

11.  MARSHALL,   LUCILE,    "Garden   Herbs:    Culture   and    Uses,"    The   Ohio 

Farmer,  January  8,  1916,  vol.  137,  No.  2.  Published  by  the  Lawrence 
Publishing  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

12.  PLAT,  SIR  HUGH,  "  Delights  for  Ladies,"  1632.  Sold  by  J.  Boler,  London. 

13.  PERNOT,  E.  F.,  "  Preserving  Wild  Mushrooms,"  January,  1908,  F.>cperi- 

ment  Station  Bulletin  98,  Oregon  Agricultural  College.  Published 
by  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis,  Ore. 

14.  TRUE,  RODNEY  H.,  "  Cultivation  of  Drug  Plants  in  the  United  States," 

Yearbook  Separate  No.  325,  in  the  Agricultural  Yearbook  of  1903, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Can  be  purchased  from 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  75  cents. 

15.  Farmers'    Bulletin   No.    841,    "  Drying    Fruits    and   Vegetables    in   the 

Home,"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS 

SINCE  the  earliest  ages  people  have  preserved  meats  by  various 
means,  and  some  of  the  methods  in  use  to-day  have  come  down 
from  a  great  antiquity.  Most  of  the  modern  methods  of  meat 
preservation,  which  have  wide  commercial  use,  can  also  be  used 
in  the  home,  with  the  single  exception  of  canning  meats,  which 
it  is  not  wise  for  the  home  maker  to  attempt  who  is  inexperienced 
in  canning.  Among  the  principal  means  used  are  drying,  smok- 
ing, and  curing  with  salt. 

GENERAL  METHODS 

Drying. — This  is  not  only  the  oldest  method  of  preserving 
foods,  but  it  is  the  simplest.  While  drying  is  better  adapted  to 
the  curing  of  fruits  and  vegetables  than  it  is  to  meats,  yet  meats 
are  often  shredded  and  dried  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Drying 
meats  should  only  be  practiced  where  there  is  little  moisture  in 
the  atmosphere,  or  the  meat  will  spoil  before  it  becomes  dry 
enough.  It  is  never  advisable  to  attempt  to  preserve  meats  by 
this  method  in  cities  where  there  is  great  danger  of  bacteria. 
Dried  meat  maintains  all  of  its  nutritive  properties,  but  it  is  not 
easily  digested  on  account  of  the  toughened  tissues.  This  product 
is  not  attractive  in  appearance,  and  this  fact  also  works  against  its 
extensive  use. 

Smoking. — The  custom  of  smoking  meats  is  said  to  have 
originated  from  the  habit  of  suspending  meat  near  the  fireplace  in 
the  dwelling.  The  meat  became  saturated  with  the  creosote  from 
the  smoke,  which  gave  it  an  agreeable  taste  and  aided  in  its  keep- 
ing qualities.  The  creosote  was  formed  by  the  burning  of  the  wood, 
and  the  smoke  closed  the  pores  to  some  extent,  excluding  the 
air  and  proving  objectionable  to  insects.  Before  meats  are  smoked 
they  usually  undergo  a  treatment  of  salt  and  sugar,  with  some- 
times a  small  amount  of  saltpetre  added  to  modify  the  color,  com- 
256 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  257 

position,  and  flavor,  and  to  aid  in  the  preservation  of  the  meat. 
Saltpetre  is  considered  injurious  to  health  by  some  hygiehists, 
and  therefore  many  may  object  to  its  use.  It  is  included  in 
some  of  these  recipes  because  its  use  had  heretofore  been  cus- 
tomary. 

Because  the  old  method  of  smoking  meats  is  long  and  expen- 
sive, a  cheaper  and  quicker  way  has  come  into  practice  rather  re- 
cently. Directions  for  this  tatter  method  state  that  brine  is  soaked 
into  the  meat,  which  is  then  treated  with  ' '  smokine "  or  "  liquid 
smoke. ' '  This  solution  may  be  purchased  from  a  local  druggist. 

Liquid  Smoke  Method. — 

200  pounds  of  meat  1  ounce  of  saltpetre 

4  quarts  of  coarse  salt  1  quart  of  warm  water 

1  pound  of  brown  sugar  %  pound  of  ground  pepper 

Dissolve  the  saltpetre  in  the  water,  add  salt  and  sugar,  and 
mix  well.  Rub  this  mixture  into  the  meat,  and  lay  on  a  bench 
in  a  cold  place  for  fourteen  days.  Then  apply  the  liquid  smoke 
with  a  brush,  dry  well,  and  in  a  few  days  paint  the  meat  again 
with  the  liquid.  Hang  up,  and  when  thoroughly  dry  wrap  the 
meat  in  heavy  brown  paper  and  then  in  a  clean  flour  sack. 

Much  time  is  saved  by  using  the  above  recipe,  but  the  meat 
which  has  been  cured  in  the  old-fashioned  smoke-house  is  much 
finer  in  flavor  and  texture.  Smoke-houses  are  still  in  use  in  many 
sections  of  the  country.  The  meat  should  not  be  subjected  to  the 
smoke  until  it  has  been  properly  cured  and  drained. 

Curing  in  Brine  and  Dry  Salting. — Curing  should  begin  as 
soon  as  the  meat  is  cold  and  while  it  is  still  fresh.  Frozen  meats 
should  not  be  salted,  as  the  action  of  the  frost  will  prevent  proper 
penetration  of  the  salt  and  uneven  curing  will  result. 

Pure  water,  salt,  sugar,  and  saltpetre  are  all  the  ingredients 
needed  for  ordinary  curing  of  meat.  Meat  may  be  packed  in 
large  earthen  jars  or  in  clean  barrels,  tight  enough  to  prevent 
leakage.  The  barrel  or  jar  may  be  used  again  and  again  unless 
meat  has  spoiled  in/  it.  These  vessels  should  always  be  scalded 
thoroughly  each  time  before  packing  fresh  meat  into  them. 

Brine-cured  meats  are  best  for  farm  use,  for  the  reason  that  a 
17 


258  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

suitable  place  for  dry-curing  is  not  usually  obtainable.  It  is  also 
less  trouble  to  pack  the  meat  in  a  barrel  and  pour  on  a  brine  than 
to  go  over  it  three  or  four  times  to  rub  in  the  salt.  The  brining 
method  also  gives  better  protection  from  insects  and  vermin. 
Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  in  keeping  brine,  but  if  pure 
water  is  used  and  directions  are  followed  in  making  the  brine 
there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  it  for  a  reasonable  length 
of  time.  During  warm  weather  brine  should  be  closely  watched. 
If  it  becomes  '  'ropy ' '  it  should  be  boiled  or  more  brine  made.  A 
cool,  moist  cellar  is  the  best  place  for  brine-curing.  Dry-curing 
may  be  done  successfully  in  a  cellar  also,  though  even  more 
moisture  is  needed  to  effect  a  thorough  cure.  The  cellar  should 
be  dark  and  tight  enough  to  prevent  flies  and  vermin  from  dam- 
aging the  meat.  When  meats  which  have  been  cured  in  brine  are 
boiled  the  shrinkage  is  greater  than  those  which  have  been  cured 
by  dry-salting. 

PRESERVING    BEEF1 

Corned  Beef. — The  pieces  commonly  used  for  corning  are 
the  plate,  rump,  cross-ribs,  and  brisket,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
cheaper  cuts  of  meat.  The  loin,  ribs,  and  other  fancy  cuts  are 
more  often  used  fresh,  and,  since  there  is  more  or  less  waste  of 
nutrients  in  corning,  this  is  well.  The  pieces  for  corning  should 
be  cut  into  convenient-sized  joints,  say  five  or  six  inches  square. 
It  should  be  the  aim  to  cut  them  all  about  the  same  thickness  so 
that  they  will  make  an  even  layer  in  the  barrel. 

Meat  from  fat  animals  makes  choicer  corned  beef  than  that 
from  poor  animals.  When  the  meat  is  thoroughly  cooled  it 
should  be  corned  as  soon  as  possible,  as  any  decay  in  the  meat  is 
likely  to  spoil  the  brine  during  the  corning  process.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  the  meat  be  brined  while  it  is  frozen. 
Weigh  out  the  meat  and  allow  eight  pounds  of  salt  to  each  100 
pounds ;  sprinkle  a  layer  of  salt  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth 
over  the  bottom  of  the  barrel ;  pack  in  as  closely  as  possible  the 

1  NOTE. — This  recipe  and  others  which  follow  are  quoted  from  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  183,  "Meat  on  the  Farm:  Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping," 
by  Andrew  Boss,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  259 

cuts  of  meat,  making  a  layer  five  or  six  inches  in  thickness ;  then 
put  on  a  layer  of  salt,  following  with  another  layer  of  meat; 
repeat  until  the  meat  and  salt  have  all  been  packed  in  the 
barrel,  care  being  used  to  reserve  salt  enough  for  a  good  layer 
over  the  top.  After  the  pack  has  stood  over  night  add,  for 
every  100  pounds  of  meat,  four  pounds  of  sugar,  two  ounces  of 
baking  soda,  and  four  ounces  of  saltpetre  dissolved  in  a  gallon 
of  tepid  water.  Three  gallons  more  of  water  should  be  sufficient 
to  cover  this  quantity.  In  case  more  or  less  than  100  pounds  of 
meat  is  to  be  corned,  make  the  brine  in  the  proportion  given.  A 
loose  board  cover  weighted  down  with  a  heavy  stone  should  be 
put  on  the  meat  to  keep  all  of  it  under  the  brine.  In  case  any 
should  project,  the  meat  would  spoil  and  cause  the  brine  to 
deteriorate. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  boil  the  brine  except  in  warm  weather. 
If  the  meat  has  been  corned  during  the  winter  and  must  be  kept 
into  the  summer  season,  it  would  be  well  to  watch  the  brine 
closely  during  the  spring,  as  it  is  more  likely  to  spoil  at  that 
time  than  at  any  other  season.  If  the  brine  appears  to  be 
ropy  or  does  not  drip  freely  from  the  finger  when  immersed 
and  lifted,  it  should  be  drained  off  and  new  brine  added,  after 
carefully  washing  the  meat.  The  sugar  or  molasses  in  the  brine 
has  a  tendency  to  ferment,  and,  unless  the  brine  is  kept  in  a  cool 
place,  there  is  sometimes  trouble  from  this  source.  The  meat 
should  be  kept  in  the  brine  twenty-eight  to  forty  days  to  secure 
thorough  corning. 

Dried  Beef. — The  round  is  commonly  used  for  dried  beef,  the 
inside  of  the  thigh  being  considered  the  choicest  piece,  as  it  is 
slightly  more  tender  than  the  outside  of  the  round.  The  round 
should  be  cut  lengthwise  of  the  grain  of  meat  in  preparing  for 
dried  beef,  so  that  the  muscle-fibers  may  be  cut  crosswise  when 
the  dried  beef  is  sliced  for  table  use.  A  tight  jar  or  cask  is 
necessary  for  curing.  The  process  is  as  follows:  To  each  100 
pounds  of  meat  weigh  out  five  pounds  of  salt,  three  pounds  of 
granulated  sugar,  and  two  ounces  of  saltpetre;  mix  thoroughly 
together.  Rub  the  meat  on  all  surfaces  with  a  third  of  the  mix- 
ture and  pack  it  in  the  jar  as  tightly  as  possible.  Allow  it  to 


260  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

remain  three  days,  when  it  should  be  removed  and  rubbed  again 
with  another  third  of  the  mixture.  In  repacking  put  at  the 
bottom  the  pieces  that  were  on  top  the  first  time.  Let  stand  for 
three  days,  when  they  should  be  removed  and  rubbed  with  the 
remaining  third  of  the  mixture  and  allowed  to  stand  for  three 
days  more.  The  liquid  forming  in  the  jars  should  not  be  removed, 
but  the  meat  should  be  repacked  in  the  liquid  each  time.  The  meat 
is  ready  to  be  taken  from  the  pickle,  and  should  be  smoked  and 
hung  in  a  dry  attic  or  near  the  kitchen  fire  where  the  water  will 
evaporate  from  it.  It  may  be  used  at  any  time  after  smoking, 
although  the  longer  it  hangs  in  the  dry  atmosphere  the  drier  it 
will  get.  The  drier  the  climate,  in  general,  the  more  easily  meats 
can  be  dried.  In  arid  regions  good  dried  meat  can  be  made  by 
exposing  it  fresh  to  the  air,  with  protection  from  flies. 

Pickling  Meat. — Authorities  differ  in  regard  to  the  formula 
used  in  the  pickling  of  meats.  The  following  recipe  is  often  used 
for  tongue  and  small  pieces  of  meat : 

Cured  Tongue. — 

2  gallons  of  water  1  ounce  of  saltpetre 

3  pounds  of  salt  l/2  cupful  of  sugar 

Rub  part  of  the  salt  into  the  meat,  dissolving  the  remainder 
of  the  salt,  the  sugar,  and  the  saltpetre  in  the  water.  Boil, 
skim,  and  strain  to  remove  all  impurities.  Cool  thoroughly  be- 
fore adding  meat.  Place  a  weight  over  the  jar  to  keep  the  meat 
under  the  brine.  Keep  in  a  cold  place  and  the  tongue  will  be 
cured  and  ready  to  cook  in  four  or  five  days. 

PRESERVING  PORK  2 

Plain  Salt  Pork. — Rub  each  piece  of  meat  with  fine  common 
salt  and  pack  closely  in  a  barrel.  Let  stand  over  night.  The 
next  day  weigh  out  ten  pounds  of  salt  and  two  ounces  of  salt- 
petre to  each  100  pounds  of  meat  and  dissolve  in  four  gallons  of 
boiling  water.  Pour  this  brine  over  the  meat  when  cold,  cover, 
and  weigh  down  to  keep  it  under  the  brine. 

2  NOTE. — These  directions  for  handling  pork  were  contributed  by  Major 
Lawrence  Foot,  Special  Agent  Marketing,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS 


261 


How  to  Cure,  Smoke,  and  Keep  Hams,  Shoulders,  and 
Bacon. — Meat  cannot  be  safely  cured  if  it  has  any  animal  heat 
in  it. 

Cutting  a  Pork  (Fig.  124). — Remove  the  head  one  inch  be- 
hind the  ears,  the  feet  one  inch  above  the  knee-and-hock-joints. 


[liipIHIIIIIJIIi! 

FIG.   124. — Cutting  a  pork. 


FIG.    125. — Trimming  hams. 


FIG.   126. — Picnic  hams  properly 
trimmed. 


The  hams  should  be  trimmed  neatly  and  round,  making  long 
hams;  cut  six  inches  below  the  stifle-joint  (Fig.  125).  The 
shoulders  can  be  cut  into  picnic  hams  if  desired  (Fig.  126). 
Notice  carefully  the  illustrations  of  hams,  picnic  hams,  and  bacon 
properly  trimmed  (Figs.  127  and  128).  Remove  the  backbone 

NOTE. — Drawings  made  from  illustrations  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  183. 


262 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


by  sawing  off  the  ribs  close  to  it.  Remove  the  ribs,  leaving  as 
little  meat  on  them  as  possible,  as  that  meat  will  be  needed  in  the 
sides  to  have  bacon  "with  a  streak  of  lean.'*  Trim  the  sides 
neatly  and  with  straight  edges;  leaf  fat  and  the  fat  trimmings 
go  into  lard,  the  lean  into  sausage. 

Salting. — No  sugar  and  no  saltpetre  are  used  in  this  recipe. 
A  hanging  pew,  box,  or  cask  may  be  used  for  packing  salted 


FIG.   127. — A  well-trimmed  ham. 


FIG.   128. — A  well-trimmed    breakfast  bacon. 


pork.  First,  place  a  layer  of  salt  and  pepper  on  the  bottom  of 
the  pew  or  box,  then  the  pieces  of  meat,  skin  down,  salting  the 
top  heavily ;  then  another  layer,  skin  down,  salting  it,  and  so  on, 
covering  every  particle  of  the  meat,  sides,  ends,  and  top,  with 
salt.  When  done  the  meat  will  look  like  a  pile  of  salt.  Hams, 
shoulders,  and  bacon  are  salted  in  this  manner  and  allowed  to 
stand  three  or  four  weeks,  according  to  the  weather.  If  it  is 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  263 

very  cold  it  takes  a  longer  period.  If  the  weather  turns  warm, 
shorten  the  period,  but  endeavor  to  cure  the  meat  in  a  room  that 
will  average  a  temperature  of  50°,  if  possible.  If  during  curing 
the  salt  becomes  crusted,  overhaul  the  meat,  rub  the  salt  in  thor- 
oughly by  hand,  and  pack  it  back  in  the  same  salt.  When  the 
meat  has  remained  in  the  salt  for  the  proper  time,  remove  it, 
wash  the  meat  thoroughly  with  tepid  water,  scrubbing  it  with  a 
brush  until  all  salt  is  removed  from  the  outside,  then  hang  "as 
the  hog  walks ' ' — shanks  down.  The  hams  and  shoulders  should 
hang  by  wire  from  the  thick  ends.  Drain  the  meat  thoroughly 
for  at  least  twenty-four  hours,  then  put  smoke  to  it. 

Smoking. — The  meat  should  hang  at  least  fifteen  feet  above 
the  fire.  Start  a  slow  fire  with  green  hickory  chips  and  smother 
the  flame,  if  any,  with  corn-cobs.  The  meat  should  be  warmed 
up  gradually  with  a  cool,  dry  smoke  and  smoked  from  ten  to 
fifteen  days,  or  until  the  meat  has  the  proper  color,  a  light 
chestnut.  The  house  should  never  get  hot  (see  p.  268). 

Sugar-cured  Breakfast  Bacon. — For  up-to-date  "sugar- 
cured"  breakfast  bacon,  take  pieces  one  inch  to  one  and  one- 
half  inches  in  thickness,  six  to  eight  inches  wide,  and  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches  long,  and  treat  with  salt,  sugar  and  saltpetre 
mixture  for  fifteen  to  twenty-two  days,  unless  strips  are  heavier. 
To  every  100  pounds  of  meat  weigh  out  eight  pounds  of  salt, 
two  pounds  of  granulated  white  sugar,  and  two  ounces  of  salt- 
petre, mix  all  thoroughly,  dampen  the  top  side  (not  skin  side) 
lightly  with  water  by  using  a  whisk  broom  dipped  in  water,  then 
rub  the  mixture  into  the  top  side,  the  edges,  and  the  ends. 
Sprinkle  bottom  of  box  with  the  mixture,  lay  in  the  piece  that  is 
rubbed,  skin  down,  and  sprinkle  with  the  salt  mixture,  giving  a 
light  coating  on  top,  then  another,  and  so  on.  Every  seven  days 
from  the  day  packed,  overhaul  all,  rub  each  piece  again,  and  re- 
salt  with  the  same  mixture  lightly.  The  bacon  that  is  one  inch 
thick  should  remain  in  mixture  fifteen  days.  The  bacon  that  is 
one  and  one-half  inches  thick  should  remain  in  mixture  twenty- 
two  days.  Heavier  bacon  may  require  longer  time.  Then  take 
out,  wash  thoroughly,  hang  in  smoke-house  twenty-four  hours  to 
drain,  and  smoke  to  a  light-chestnut  color.  This  recipe  should 


264  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

not  be  used  where  the  meat  must  be  kept  in  a  warm  and  dry 
place,  as  the  preservatives  will  not  penetrate  easily  and  uni- 
formly. 

Pickled  Hams  and  Bacon  in  Brine. — This  recipe  differs  from 
the  one  given  (p.  262),  in  that  it  calls  for  saltpetre  and  water.  It 
has  given  satisfaction  and  is  preferred  by  some.  When  the  meat 
is  cold,  rub  each  piece  with  salt  and  allow  it  to  drain  over  night. 
Then  pack  it  in  a  barrel  with  the  hams  and  shoulders  in  the 
bottom,  using  the  strips  of  bacon  to  fill  in  between  or  to  put  on 
top.  Weigh  out  for  each  100  pounds  of  meat  eight  pounds  of 
salt,  two  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  and  two  ounces  of  saltpetre. 
Dissolve  all  in  four  gallons  of  water,  and  cover  the  meat  with 
the  brine.  For  summer  use  it  will  be  safest  to  boil  the  brine 
before  using.  In  that  case  it  should  be  thoroughly  cooled  be- 
fore it  is  used.  For  winter  curing  it  is  not  necessary  to  boil 
the  brine.  Bacon  strips  should  remain  in  this  brine  four  to  six 
weeks ;  hams,  six  to  eight  weeks.  Hams  and  bacon  cured  in  the 
spring  will  keep  right  through  the  summer  after  they  are  smoked. 
The  meat  will  be  sweet  and  palatable  if  it  is  properly  smoked, 
and  the  flavor  will  be  good. 

Head-cheese. — Cut  a  hog's  head  into  four  pieces.  Remove 
the  brain,  ears,  skin,  snout,  and  eyes.  Cut  off  the  fattest  parts 
for  lard.  Put  the  lean  and  bony  parts  to  soak  over  night  in 
cold  water  in  order  to  extract  the  blood  and  dirt.  When  the 
meat  is  cleaned,  put  it  over  the  fire  to  boil,  using  water  enough 
to  cover  it.  Boil  until  the  meat  separates  readily  from  the  bone. 
Then  remove  it  from  the  fire  and  pick  out  all  of  the  bones.  Drain 
off  the  liquor,  saving  a  part  of  it  for  future  use.  Chop  the  meat 
up  finely  with  a  chopping  knife.  Return  it  to  the  kettle  and 
pour  on  enough  of  the  liquor  to  cover  the  meat.  Let  it  boil 
slowly  for  fifteen  minutes  to  half  hour.  Season  to  taste  with  salt 
and  pepper  just  before  removing  it  from  the  fire.  Turn  into 
a  shallow  pan  or  dish.  Cover  with  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  and  put 
on  a  board  with  a  weight  to  make  it  solid.  When  cold  it  should 
be  sliced  thinly  and  served  without  further  cooking. 

Scrapple. — The  process  for  making  this  article  of  food  is  like 
that  for  head-cheese  until  the  bones  are  removed  and  the  meat 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  265 

chopped.  When  the  liquor  is  added,  return  the  pan  to  the  stove 
to  boil.  Cornmeal  is  then  stirred  in  until  the  contents  are  as  thick 
as  cornmeal  mush.  Stir  it  constantly  for  the  first  fifteen  minutes: 
Then  set  it  back  on  the  stove  to  boil  slowly  for  an  hour.  When 
it  is  done,  pour  it  into  a  shallow  dish  to  mould.  Hot  grease 
poured  over  the  top  after  scrapple  is  put  into  moulds  will  help 
in  keeping  it.  When  cold  it  is  sliced  in  thin  pieces  and  fried. 

Pickled  Pigs'  Feet.3 — Pigs '  feet  should  be  thoroughly  scalded, 
cleaned,  washed  and  chilled,  and  cured  in  a  clean,  sterilized 
wooden  vessel.  Strength  of  pickle  depends  upon  length  of  time 
it  is  to  be  carried,  say  an  80°  pickle  with  five  ounces  of  saltpetre 
per  100  pounds  of  meat  for  shipment  in  ten  days;  a  100°  pickle 
for  five  days.  Some  curers  use  in  addition  one  and  one-half 
pounds  of  sugar  per  100  pounds  of  feet.  Pigs'  feet  cured  by 
this  method  will  be  white  and  more  attractive  than  when  pickled 
with  spices. 

If  spices  are  used  it  must  be  remembered  that  cloves  tend  to 
darken  the  feet.  Curing  should  be  effected  in  a  clean  wooden 
receptacle,  using  clean  water  for  each  batch. 

Trying  Out  Lard. — Only  the  best  of  fat  should  be  used  for 
choice  lard.  Leaf  fat  is  the  best.  Leaf  lard  is  that  which  is 
made  from  the  leaf  fat  which  lies  around  the  kidneys.  The 
next  best  in  quality  is  that  from  the  back,  and  the  poorest 
quality  is  that  from  around  the  intestines.  The  greater  part  of 
the  lard  marketed  is  obtained  by  melting  together  the  whole  fat 
except  the  leaf  fat.  The  back  strip  of  the  side  also  makes  nice 
lard,  as  do  the  ham,  shoulder,  and  neck  trimmings.  Fat  from 
around  the  intestines  should  never  be  mixed  with  the  leaf  and 
back  fat.  It  makes  a  strong-smelling  lard  and  should  be  kept 
separate.  All  scraps  of  lean  meat  should  be  cut  out  of  the  fat 
before  trying  out,  as  they  are  very  likely  to  stick  to  the  kettle  and 
get  scorched,  giving  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  lard.  When 
preparing  the  fat  for  trying,  cut  it  into  pieces  from  one  to  one 
and  one-half  inches  square.  The  pieces  should  be  nearly  equal 
in  size,  so  that  they  will  try  out  in  about  the  same  time.  Fill  a 
clean  kettle  about  three-fourths  full,  and  put  in  a  quart  of  water 

3  Quoted  from  "  The  National  Provisioner." 


266  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

or,  if  convenient,  a  quart  of  hot  lard.  One  or  the  other  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  the  fat  from  burning  before  the  heat  is  sufficient 
to  bring  out  the  grease.  Keep  the  kettle  over  a  moderate  fire 
until  the  cracklings  are  brown  and  light  enough  to  float.  Fre- 
quent stirring  will  be  necessary  to  prevent  burning.  When  done, 
remove  from  the  stove  and  allow  to  cool  slightly,  and  then  strain 
through  a  muslin  cloth  into  a  large  jar.  Stir  it  occasionally  until 
it  is  cool  enough  to  begin  to  solidify.  If  pails  or  smaller  jars  are 
to  be  filled,  the  lard  should  be  dipped  out  while  just  warm  enough 
to  be  liquid.  Stirring  while  the  lard  is  cooling  tends  to  whiten  it 
and  makes  it  smoother.  Lard  should  be  stored  in  a  dry,  cool, 
dark  place.  Light,  moisture,  and  high  temperatures  affect  its 
quality  unfavorably. 

SAUSAGE 

Sausage. — Pork  sausage  should  be  made  only  from  clean, 
fresh  pork.  The  shoulders,  neck,  and  lean  trimmings  are  usu- 
ally used  for  sausage.  Unless  part  of  the  fat  is  removed  and 
used  for  lard  the  sausage  is  likely  to  be  too  fat.  To  each 
eighteen  pounds  of  lean  meat  allow  six  pounds  of  fat.  Mix  the 
fat  and  lean  meat  together  in  chopping.  Whe^e  a  rotary  cutter 
is  used  it  is  best  to  cut  the  meat  twice  (Fig.  129).  After  it  is 
cut  the  first  time,  spread  it  out  thinly  and  season.  Eight  ounces 
of  pure,  fine  salt,  four  ounces  of  ground  black  pepper,  four 
ounces  of  pure  leaf  sage,  rubbed  fine,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  red 
pepper  to  each  twenty-four  pounds  of  meat  will  suit  the  taste  of 
most  persons.  The  seasoning  should  be  sprinkled  thinly  over  the 
cut  meat  and  the  meat  again  run  through  the  cutter  to  mix 
the  seasoning  thoroughly.  This  method  will  give  a  more  even 
mixing  of  the  spices  than  can  be  obtained  by  working  it  with  the 
hands.  For  immediate  use  the  sausage  may  be  packed  away  in 
stone  jars  or  crocks,  to  be  sliced  for  frying.  Many  people  stuff 
it  into  casings  made  from  the  small  intestines  of  the  hog.  When 
this  is  done  the  intestines  must  be  turned  inside  out  and  care- 
fully cleaned. 

A  good  substitute  for  casings  may  be  had  in  narrow  muslin 
bags.  These,  when  filled,  should  be  two  and  one-half  or  three 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS 


267 


inches  in  diameter  and  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  long. 
Stuff  the  sausage  in  tightly  by  hand  and  hang  in  a  cool  place. 
If  the  sausage  is  to  be  kept  for  some  time,  melted  lard  should  be 
rubbed  over  the  outside  of  the  bag.  This  excludes  the  air. 
Sausage  may  be  kept  for  some  time  in  a  large  jar  if  a  thin 
coat  of  hot  lard  is  poured  over  the  top. 

Mixed  Sausage. — This  may  be  made  from  a  mixture  of  pork 
and  beef  in  almost  any  proportion.     It  is  the  custom  of  many 


FIG.   129. — Grinding  sausage  meat  the  second  time  after  seasoning  is  added. 

farms  to  kill  three  or  four  hogs  and  a  beef  during  the  winter  for 
the  year's  supply  of  meat.  When  this  plan  is  followed  a  nice 
supply  of  sausage  can  be  made  from  the  trimmings.  Sausage 
should  not  contain  too  much  fat.  A  good  proportion  is  two 
pounds  of  lean  pork,  one  pound  of  fat  pork,  and  one  pound  of 
lean  beef.  Chop  together  fine  and  season  the  same  as  for  pork 
sausage.  Pack  in  jars,  muslin  bags,  or  casings.  Many  people 
prefer  this  to  clear  pork  sausage,  as  it  is  not  so  fat. 

Bologna  Sausage. — To  each  ten  pounds  of  lean  beef  use  one 
pound  of  fat  pork,  or  bacon  if  preferred.  Chop  finely  and 
season  with  one  ounce  of  salt  to  each  four  pounds  of  meat,  one 
ounce  of  the  best  black  pepper  (ground,  pure)  to  each  six 


268  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

pounds  of  meat,  and  a  little  ground  coriander.  Stuff  into  cas- 
ings called  beef  "middles"  or  beef  "rounds."  If  stuffed  into 
middles,  make  the  sausages  ten  or  twelve  inches  long,  and  allow 
them  to  hang  straight.  If  stuffed  into  rounds,  make  them  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches  long,  and  tie  the  ends  together  so  as  to  form 
rings.  Smoke  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Cook  in  boiling  water 
until  the  sausages  float.  Dry  on  clean  hay  or  straw  in  the  sun, 
and  hang  away  in  a  cool  place  until  wanted. 

Casings. — Sausage  casings  are  the  intestines  of  hogs,  cattle, 
or  sheep  which  have  been  emptied  and  cleaned.  They  are  turned 
inside  out  and  soaked  in  a  solution  of  lye  or  lime  water,  thor- 
oughly washed,  and  then  salted  down.  When  cleaned  and  put 
up  by  a  reputable  packer  they  are  as  good  as  when  cleaned  at 
home,  and  when  they  can  be  bought  at  a  reasonable  price  (three 
cents  a  pound,  perhaps)  it  hardly  pays  to  clean  them  for  home 
use.  The  casings  from  different  animals  are  used  for  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  sausages.  Beef  casings  are  of  three  kinds — ' '  rounds, ' ' 
made  from  the  small  intestines;  "bungs,"  made  from  the  large 
intestines,  and  "middles,"  made  from  that  part  of  the  entrails 
leading  from  the  bung  to  the  rectum.  The  "rounds"  are  used 
for  bologna,  the  "bungs"  for  bologna,  ham,  and  blood  sausage, 
and  the  "middles"  for  bologna  and  summer  sausage.  Hog  cas- 
ings are  made  from  the  small  intestines  of  the  hog,  and  are  used 
mainly  for  pork  link  sausage.  Sheep  casings  are  from  the  small 
intestines  of  sheep,  and  are  commonly  used  for  wienerwurst  and 
other  small  sausages. 

THE    SMOKE-HOUSE 

The  smoke-house  should  be  eight  or  ten  feet  high  to  give 
the  best  results,  and  of  a  size  suited  to  the  amount  of  meat 
likely  to  be  smoked.  One  six  by  eight  feet  will  be  large  enough 
for  ordinary  farm  use.  Ample  ventilation  should  be  provided 
to  carry  off  the  warm  air  in  order  to  prevent  overheating 
the  meat.  Small  openings  under  the  eaves  or  a  chimney  in  the 
roof  will  be  sufficient  if  arranged  so  as  to  be  easily  controlled. 
A  fire-pot  outside  of  the  house  proper,  with  a  flue  through  which 
the  smoke  may  be  conducted  to  the  meat  chamber,  gives  the  best 


PKESERVATION  OF  MEATS  269 

conditions  for  smoking.  When  this  cannot  well  be  arranged,  a 
fire  may  be  built  on  the  floor  of  the  house  and  the  meat  shielded 
by  a  sheet  of  metal.  Where  the  meat  can  be  hung  six  or  seven 
feet  above  the  fire  this  precaution  need  not  be  taken.  The  con- 
struction should  be  such  as  to  allow  the  smoke  to  pass  up  freely 
over  the  meat  and  out  of  the  house,  though  rapid  circulation  is 
at  the  expense  of  fuel. 

Brick  or  stone  houses  are  best,  though  the  first  cost  is  greater 
than  if  they  are  built  of  lumber.  Large  dry-goods  boxes  and 
even  barrels  may  be  made  to  serve  as  smoke-houses  where  only 
small  amounts  of  meat  are  to  be  smoked.  The  care  of  meat  in 
such  substitutes  is  so  much  more  difficult  and  the  results  so  much 
less  satisfactory  that  a  permanent  place  should  be  provided  if 
possible. 

The  following  specifications  were  furnished  by  Major  Law- 
rence Foot,  of  Little  Rock,  Ark.  From  these  figures  one  can  get 
an  idea  of  the  approximate  cost  of  a  small  smoke-house.  In  dif- 
ferent localities  the  price  of  material  and  labor  will  vary  some- 
what. This  bill  of  lumber  and  specifications  are  for  a  smoke- 
house ten  feet  by  sixteen  feet,  roof  one-third  pitch,  with  dirt 
floor  and  brick  foundation : 

675  brick,  $8  per  1000 $5.40 

Three  squares  of  composition  roofing 6.00 

Sills,  2  pieces,  4  X  6  inches,  16  feet  long 64  feet 

Sills,  2  pieces,  4  X  6  inches,  10  feet  long 40  feet 

Siding,  62  pieces,  1  X  12  inches,  12  feet  long 620  feet 

Battens,  52  pieces,  %  X  3  inches,  10  feet  long 154  feet 

Eafters,  11  pieces,  2X4  inches,  16  feet  long 117  feet 

Joists,  7  pieces,  2X6  inches,  10  feet  long 70  feet 

Plates,  2  pieces,  2X4  inches,  10  feet  long 13  feet 

Plates,  2  pieces,  2x4  inches,  16  feet  long 21  feet 

Sheeting    300  feet 

On  sides  of  door,  2  pieces,  2X4  inches,  10  feet  long 13  feet 

Door  battens,   1   piece,   lX^   inches,   12    feet  long 4  feet 


Total  feet   ($14  per  1000) 1416  feet    19.82 


Total  cost  of  above '. $31.22 


270  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

The  above  lumber  will  permit  the  roof  to  extend  one  foot  over 
the  gables  and  one  foot  over  the  sides.  The  sheeting  is  not  worth 
as  much  as  the  other  lumber;  $8.78  additional  will  make  the 
house  cost  about  $40.  This  $8.78  should  pay  for  the  carpenter's 
work  (two  days  should  do  it),  bricklayer,  mortar,  hinges,  pad- 
lock, and  nails. 

On  the  ridge  of  your  roof  you  should  have  two  ventilators, 
divided  as  follows:  If  house  is  sixteen  feet  long,  one  five  feet 
from  one  end  and  the  next  five  feet  from  the  other  ventilator; 
make  same  of  galvanized  sheet  iron  one  foot  long,  in  the  shape 
of  a  pipe  four  inches  in  diameter;  let  six  inches  be  above  the 
ridge  and  six  inches  below,  and  so  built  on  the  ridge  (the  tinner 
can  do  that)  as  not  to  let  the  rain  leak  into  your  house.  Use  a 
loose  wooden  cover  of  sufficient  weight  to  keep  them  (the  covers) 
in  place  so  as  to  fully  open  or  partly  close,  but  always  keep  them 
a  little  open  in  order  to  make  a  slight  draught  to  let  the  smoke 
out  slowly  and  give  a  cool  smoke.  A  ventilator  at  the  bottom  of 
your  door  will  help  this  slight  draught,  but  the  inside  of  same 
should  be  covered  with  close  wire  netting  in  order  to  keep  out 
flies,  and  the  same  kind  of  netting  tied  tightly  with  wire  should 
also  be  placed  over  and  around  your  roof  ventilators  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  house  should  be  absolutely  dark,  "light- 
proof."  This  will  keep  out  flies,  which  breed  skippers.  Put 
your  foundation  in  the  ground  below  frost  line. 

Fuel. — The  best  fuel  for  smoking  meats  is  green  hickory  or 
maple  wood  smothered  with  sawdust  of  the  same  material.  Hard 
wood  of  any  kind  is  preferable  to  soft  wood.  Resinous  woods 
should  never  be  used,  as  they  are  likely  to  impart  bad  flavors  to 
the  product.  Corn-cobs  are  the  best  substitute  for  hard  wood, 
and  may  be  used  if  desired.  Soft  wood  and  corn-cobs  give  off 
large  amounts  of  carbon  in  burning,  and  that  is  deposited  on  the 
meat,  making  it  dark  in  color  and  rank  flavored.  Juniper  berries, 
fragrant  woods,  and  apple  parings  are  sometimes  added  to  the 
fire  to  flavor  the  meat. 

Filling  the  House.— Meat  that  is  to  be  smoked  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  brine  two  or  three  days  before  being  put  in  the 
smoke-house.  If  it  has  been  cured  in  a  strong  brine,  it  will  be 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS 

best  to  soak  the  pieces  in  cold  water  over  night  to  prevent  a 
crust  of  salt  from  forming  on  the  outside  when  drained.  Wash- 
ing the  meat  in  tepid  water  and  scrubbing  clean  with  a  brush  is 
a  good  practice.  The  pieces  should  then  be  hung  up  to  drain 
for  a  day  or  two.  When  drained,  they  may  be  hung  in  the  house. 
All  should  be  suspended  from  the  joists  and  rafters  below  the 
ventilators,  and  should  hang  so  that  no  two  pieces  come  in  con- 
tact, as  this  would  prevent  uniform  smoking. 

Keeping  up  the  Fire. — A  slow  fire  may  then  be  started,  warm- 
ing up  the  meat  gradually.  During  the  winter  months  in  cold 
climates  it  is  best  to  keep  the  fire  going  continually  until  the 
smoking  is  complete,  holding  the  temperature  at  about  the  same 
point.  If  the  fire  is  allowed  to  die  down,  the  meat  becomes  cold 
and  the  smoke  does  not  penetrate  readily.  This  results  in  heavy 
smoke  on  the  outside  and  very  little  on  the  inner  portions  of  the 
meat.  During  the  spring  months  and  in  the  summer  a  light  fire 
may  be  started  every  second  or  third  day  for  two  weeks,  the 
meat  being  allowed  to  hang  in  the  smoke-house  until  sufficiently 
colored.  When  the  fire  is  kept  going  steadily  and  an  even  tem- 
perature is  maintained,  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  will  be 
required  to  finish  one  lot  of  meat.  Smoke  will  not  penetrate 
frozen  meat,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  extract  all  frost  from  it 
before  filling  the  house.  The  house  should  be  kept  dark  at  all 
times  to  prevent  flies  entering.  As  soon  as  smoked  sufficiently, 
the  meat  should  be  cooled  by  opening  the  ventilators  or  doors. 

KEEPING  SMOKED  MEATS 

When  hard  and  firm  the  meat  may  be  canvased  or  packed 
away  for  summer  use.  Smoked  meat  may  also  be  left  in  the 
smoke-house  for  some  time  during  moderate  weather.  The  house 
should  be  kept  perfectly  dark  and  well  enough  ventilated  to 
prevent  dampness.  A  dry,  cool  cellar  or  an  attic  with  free  cir- 
culation will  be  a  satisfactory  place  for  smoked  meats  at  all 
seasons  if  it  is  kept  dark  and  flies  are  excluded.  A  fine  way  to 
keep  the  smoked  meat  is  to  place  the  meat,  when  smoking  is 
finished,  skin  down,  in  a  single  layer  on  8  hanging  table  in  the 
smoke-house,  The  table  should  be  hung  with  wires  so  the  mice 


272  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

cannot  reach  the  meat.  They  can  easily  do  this  when  the  tables 
are  hung  with  cords.  Sift  wood  ashes  over  these  hanging  tables, 
place  on  them  only  one  layer  of  meat,  skin  down,  and  cover 
ends,  sides,  and  top  completely  with  sifted  ashes  at  least  two 
inches  thick.  Make  ashes  from  such  woods  as  poplar,  ash,  cot- 
tonwood,  or  such  hard  woods  as  hickory,  maple,  walnut,  etc. 
The  ashes  should  be  sifted  until  as  fine  as  flour,  and  the  meat 
can  remain  untouched  and  only  removed  as  needed  for  the 
table.  Hams  so  treated  will  keep  remarkably  well  for  several 
years.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  a  ham  attains  its  full  excel- 
lence when  it  is  a  year  old. 

This  method  seems  to  follow  out  the  method  used  by  the 
Westphalians  in  smoking  their  hams,  except  that  they  allow  them 
to  hang  until  wanted  for  use,  and  once  in  a  while,  especially  in 
damp  weather,  give  them  a  little  smoke. 

If  to  be  kept  only  a  short  time,  hams  and  bacon  will  need 
only  to  be  hung  out  separately  without  covering.  For  longer 
keeping  it  will  be  necessary  to  wrap  them  first  in  heavy  brown 
paper  and  then  in  burlap,  canvas,  or  muslin  and  bury  them  in  a 
grain  bin  or  other  suitable  place,  the  object  being  to  gain  a  uni- 
form temperature  and  to  keep  away  insects.  A  coat  of  ground 
pepper  rubbed  into  the  meat  before  wrapping  will  be  distasteful 
to  them.  For  absolute  safe-keeping  for  an  indefinite  period  of 
time  it  is  essential  that  the  meat  be  thoroughly  cured.  After 
it  isT  smoked  and  has  become  dry  on  the  surface  it  should  be 
wrapped  in  parchment  paper;  or  clean  wrapping  paper  will  do 
where  parchment  paper  cannot  be  had.  Then  inclose  in  heavy 
muslin  or  canvas,  and  cover  with  yellow  wash  or  ordinary  lime 
whitewash,  glue  being  added.  Hang  each  piece  out  so  that  it 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  other  pieces.  Do  not  stack  in 
piles. 

Recipe  for  Yellow  Wash  for  Meat  Canvas. — For  100  pounds 
hams  or  bacon  take : 

3    pounds    of    barytes     (barium  1  ounce  of  glue 

sulfate)  6  ounces  of  flour 

1      ounce     of     chrome     yellow 
(lead  chromate) 


PRESERVATION  OF  MEATS  273 

Half  fill  a  pail  with  water  and  mix  in  the  flour,  dissolving 
all  lumps  thoroughly.  Dissolve  the  chrome  in  a  quart  of  water 
in  a  separate  vessel  and  add  the  solution  and  the  glue  to  the  flour ; 
bring  the  whole  to  a  boil  and  add  the  barytes  slowly,  stirring 
constantly.  Make  the  wash  the  day  before  it  is  required.  Stir 
it  frequently  when  using,  and  apply  with  a  brush. 

Cooking  Ham. — Hams  cured  without  sugar  in  the  salt  to 
sweeten  them  will  perhaps  be  better  if  boiled  by  the  follow- 
ing recipe.  The  sugar  placed  in  the  kettle  will  in  a  great 
measure  add  to  the  sweetness  of  the  ham,  and  if  the  ham  has 
taken  too  much  salt  the  sugar  will  help  that  fault  also  to  some 
extent. 

A  Combination  Virginia  and  Louisiana  Recipe. — Immerse  and 
soak  the  ham  or  shoulder  in  water  the  night  before  cooking  (if 
one  year  old  or  over,  soak  twenty-four  hours),  then  wash  thor- 
oughly in  tepid  water.  The  ham  is  then  placed,  skin  down,  in 
a  boiler  full  of  boiling  water.  After  putting  in  the  water,  add 
a  teacupful  each  of  sugar  and  vinegar.  The  temperature  should 
then  be  allowed  to  lower  slightly  and  the  water  just  kept  gently 
simmering  several  hours,  with  the  top  on  the  kettle.  As  the 
water  boils  out,  add  fresh  boiling  water,  and  always  keep  the 
boiler  full.  By  putting  it  in  boiling  water  the  albumin  is  co- 
agulated at  once  on  the  surface  of  the  ham  and  much  of  the 
juices  and  flavors  kept  in  until  cooked.  When  the  ham  is  done 
it  will  turn  over,  skin  up,  and  the  meat  will  leave  the  bone  in 
the  leg  for  an  inch.  After  the  ham  is  cooked,  take  kettle  and 
all  off  the  stove,  skim  off  the  impurities,  and  let  it  cool  off  in 
the  water  in  which  it  has  cooked,  as  it  will  reabsorb  part  of 
the  nutriment  and  juices  which  have  been  drawn  out  during 
cooking,  and  the  shrinkage  is  much  less  than  if  taken  out  imme- 
diately. 

Baking  Ham. — The  following  day  remove  outside  skin,  stick 
with  cloves  one-half  inch  apart,  and  cover  the  ham  well  with 
brown  sugar  and  bake,  basting  it  frequently  with  cider.  When 
it  is  well  baked,  take  it  out  of  the  oven  and  baste  another  ten  to 
twenty  minutes  in  the  pan  on  top  of  the  stove.  The  sugar  crust 
should  be  quite  brown  and  crisp  when  done. 

18 


274  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  methods  have  been  used  for  centuries  in  the  preservation  of  meat? 

2.  Why  should  meat  be  cured  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  animal   heat 

has  been  lost? 

3.  Why  can  you   not  depend  upon  the   result  if  frozen  meat  be  cured  or 

smoked  ? 

4.  Why  is  brine-cured  meat  more  practical  than  dry-cured  when  the  meat  is 

cured  at  home? 

5.  For  what  must  the  brine  be  watched  closely,  especially  during  warm 

weather?    What  are  the  causes  of  the  brine  spoiling?    What  care  must 
be  given  it  and  the  meat  in  it  if  a  brine  is  found  to  be  spoiled  ? 

6.  Why  must  the  meat  be  weighted  so  that  every  portion  is  kept  under  the 

brine? 

7.  What  cut  of  beef  is  usually  selected  as  the  nicer  portion  to  dry?     How 

should  it  be  cut  ? 

8.  Describe  the   process   of   curing  and   the   time  taken   to  accomplish    it. 

When  is  the  beef  ready  for  use? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  sugar-cured  hams  and  bacon? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  BITTING,  A.  W.  and  K.  G.,  "  Canning  and  How  to  Use  Canned  Foods." 

1916.  Published  by  the  National  fanners'  Association,  Washington, 
D.  C.  30  cents. 

2.  Boss,  ANDREW,  "  Meat  on  the  Farm :  Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping," 

1906,  Farmers'  Bulletin  183,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. Can  be  purchased  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  5  cents. 

3.  CATO  AND  VABRO,  "  Roman  Farm  Management,"  done  into  English,  with 

notes  of  modern  instances,  by  a  Virginia  Farmer,  1913.  Published 
by  the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.  $2. 

4.  FOOT,  LAWRENCE,  "How  to  Make  as  Good  Hams  in  Any  State  as  are 

Made  in  Virginia,"  University  of  Arkansas.  Published  by  the  Ex- 
tension Division  of  the  University  of  Arkansas,  Fayetteville,  Ark. 

5.  FOOT,  LAWRENCE,  "  How  to  Cure,  Smoke,  and  Keep  Hams,  Shoulders,  and 

Bacon,"  1915.  Published  by  the  Extension  Division,  University  of 
Arkansas,  Fayetteville,  Ark. 

6.  Fox,  MINNIE  C.,  "Blue  Grass  Cook  Book,"    1904.     Published  by  Fox, 

Duffield  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $1.50. 

7.  HAMEL,  G.  T.,  "Modern  Practice  of  Canning  Meats,"  1911.     Published 

by  the  Brecht  Company,  St.  Louis,  Mo.     $5. 

8.  HAUSNER,  A,,  "  The  Manufacture  of  Preserved  Foods  and  Sweetmeats," 

1912.     Published  by   Scott,  Greenwood  &  Son,  London.     $3. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

USE  OF  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  IN  THE  DIET 

FRUITS  and  vegetables  would  be  welcome  on  our  tables  if  it 
were  only  for  their  beauty  of  form  and  color,  and  for  the  pleas- 
ing variety  of  flavors  which  they  give  to  our  meals.  Consider- 
ing, however,  that  besides  being  attractive  to  the  eye  and  the 
taste  they  are  absolutely  necessary  for  health  and  for  physical 
well-being,  it  seems  worth  while  to  make  every  effort  to  use  them 
as  freely  as  we  can  afford  to.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  also,  to 
preserve  them  in  times  of  plenty  for  use  in  times  of  scarcity  and 
high  prices. 

These  foods  should  not  be  undervalued  because  they  cannot 
supply  all  that  is  needed  in  the  diet.  They  cannot  take  the 
place  of  meat  or  milk,  to  be  sure,  or  of  bread  or  butter,  but  they 
are  as  important  in  their  places  as  these  other  more  substantial 
foods  are  in  theirs. 

The  healthful  diet,  as  a  whole,  should  supply  a  large  number 
of  substances,  which,  for  convenience,  may  be  here  grouped 
under  four  heads : 

First,  fuel.  This  is  needed  by  the  body  much  as  the  locomo- 
tive needs  coal  as  a  source  of  energy  or  of  power  to  do  work.  The 
greater  part  of  the  fuel  of  the  body  is  provided  by  fats,  sugar, 
and  starch. 

Second,  protein.  This,  like  fat,  sugar,  and  starch,  is  a  fuel, 
but,  unlike  them,  it  supplies  many  of  the  materials  needed  by 
the  body  of  the  child  for  making  new  tissues,  and  by  the  bodies 
of  the  grown  persons  for  making  good  the  losses  in  the  bodily 
machinery  that  are  constantly  taking  place  as  the  result  of  the 
wear  and  tear  of  work. 

Third,  non-burnable  or  mineral-building  materials.  These 
substances,  like  protein,  are  needed  by  the  young  for  growth 
and  by  all  as  a  means  of  keeping  the  body  in  good  repair. 

275 


276  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Fourth,  certain  newly  discovered  substances  which  are  be- 
lieved to  be  growth-promoting  and  body-regulating,  and  there- 
fore needed  to  keep  the  human  machine  in  good  running  order. 
These  substances  correspond  with  the  cleaning  materials  and  the 
lubricating  oils  used  on  the  locomotive.  They  neither  serve  as 
fuel  nor  enter  into  the  structure  of  the  body,  but  have  an  im- 
portant  part  to  play  in  its  operation. 

In  considering  the  necessary  nutrients  of  the  body  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  listed  above,  we  come  first  to  those  which 
cannot  be  supplied  in  any  very  large  measure  by  fresh  fruits  and 
vegetables.  Apples,  oranges,  turnips,  asparagus,  and,  in  fact, 
all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  contain  large  amounts  of  water, 
usually  eight  parts  out  of  ten  by  weight.  In  some  cases,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  succulent  vegetables  like  lettuce,  cucum- 
bers, and  tomatoes,  water  constitutes  over  90  per  cent  of  the 
weight.  They  have  the  same  relation  to  butter,  oil,  and  other 
fats  as  fuels  for  the  body  as  soft  wood  or  paper  has  to  coal 
when  considered  as  fuels  for  a  locomotive.  Even  those  who  eat 
fruits  and  vegetables  very  freely  seldom  get  from  them,  in  the 
course  of  a  clay,  more  than  a  tenth  of  the  energy  they  need  for 
their  work. 

Nor  can  fruits  and  vegetables  be  used  as  the  chief  source  of 
protein.  This  is  best  supplied  by  milk  in  the  case  of  the  child, 
and  by  milk,  meat,  eggs,  and  cheese  in  the  case  of  grown  per- 
sons. Among  the  foods  usually  classed  as  vegetables,  only  the 
dried  legumes — navy  beans,  peanuts,  soy  beans,  and  others — pro- 
vide much  protein.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  vegetables  seldom 
provide  more  than  five  per  cent  of  all  the  protein  needed  in  the 
course  of  a  day  (Plate  III). 

The  statement  of  the  uses  to  which  fruits  and  vegetables 
cannot  be  put  clears  the  ground  for  an  understanding  of  their 
very  great  usefulness  in  other  particulars.  As  sources  of  min- 
eral-building substances,  particularly  iron,  they  are  invaluable. 
This  should  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  without  fruits  and  vege- 
tables the  diet  would  be  entirely  lacking  in  iron,  for  it  is  pres- 
ent in  large  amounts  in  lean  meats,  egg  yolks,  cereals,  and  other 
common  foods.  In  these  last-mentioned  substances,  however,  iron 


PLATE  III 


U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  flf  Experiment  Stations 

A.C  True  .Director 


FHpared  by 

C.F.LANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


©IF  IF©©! 


Protein  Fat 

SMUOJLli 


Carbohydrates          Ash 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.  In.  Equals 
1000  Calories 


ater;58.9 
Carbohydrates:  29.1 

Ash:2.0 


Carboh-yarates:59.6 


Sh:3.5 


FUEL    VALUL: 


FUEL    VALUE: 


740  CALORIES    PER    POUND 


1600  CALORIES    PER    POUND 


Carbohydrates:/. 


Water:  89. 


FUEL    VALUE: 


I 


185    CALORIES    PER    POUND 


EDIBLE  PORTION 

Protein:  3.' 


Carbohydrates:19.7 
Sh:0.7 


(Courtesy,  OflBce  of  Homo  Economics,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

FOOD  CHART 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  IN  THE  DIET  277 

is  combined  with  a  large  amount  of  fuel  in  the  form,  sometimes 
of  protein,  sometimes  of  starch,  sugar,  or  fat.  If,  therefore, 
meats,  eggs,  cereals,  etc.,  are  eaten  in  large  enough  amounts  to 
supply  iron,  they  provide  too  much  fuel  for  the  body,  and  this, 
if  not  burned  out  to  supply  energy,  is  likely  to  be  deposited  in 
the  form  of  fat.  Unless  fruits  and  vegetables  are  freely  eaten, 
therefore,  one  of  two  unfortunate  conditions  is  likely  to  exist: 
Either  the  diet  will  be  deficient  in  iron,  or  it  will  be  too  "hearty." 
It  is  because  of  their  very  wateriness  that  fruits  and  vegetables 
can  be  freely  used  as  a  source  of  iron  and  other  mineral  sup- 
plies without  overloading  the  body  with  other  substances. 

In  the  diet  of  children  fruits  and  vegetables  are  particularly 
useful.  Milk,  which  is  an  indispensable  part  of  their  food,  con- 
tains plenty  of  lime  and  some  iron.  The  iron,  however,  is  in- 
sufficient for  health.  Soups  and  other  dishes  made  out  of  milk 
and  spinach  or  other  vegetables  are  therefore  important  items 
in  the  diet  of  children. 

Of  the  many  other  ways  in  which  fruits  and  vegetables  help 
to  keep  the  body  in  order  it  will  be  sufficient  to  speak  here  only 
of  two  or  three.  First,  they  give  bulk  to  the  diet,  and  for  this 
reason  are  believed  to  have  an  important  part  to  play  in  the 
digestion  of  other  foods.  Their  delicate,  fibrous  framework  con- 
sists of  a  substance  called  cellulose,  which  is  not  digested.  The 
cellulose,  therefore,  remains  unchanged  as  it  passes  through  the 
digestive  organs  and  serves  to  prevent  other  foods  from  settling 
down  into  compact  masses.  Whether  this  is  the  whole  explana- 
tion of  the  laxative  effect  of  these  foods  or  not  is  still  uncertain. 
It  is  probable  that  the  mild  acids  and  mineral  substances  which 
all  of  them  contain  contribute  toward  the  same  end.  However 
that  may  be,  they  serve  in  some  way  to  keep  the  food  from 
accumulating  in  the  intestines  until  it  undergoes  undesirable 
decomposition. 

There  is  also  a  theory  that  fruits  and  vegetables  have  an  im- 
portant part  to  play  in  offsetting  certain  substances  that  are 
produced  in  the  digestion  of  meat,  poultry,  fish,  eggs,  etc.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  these  last-mentioned  foods  is  needed  for  body- 
building purposes.  Without  fruits  and  vegetables,  however,  they 


278 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


would,  according  to  the  theory,  be  left  in  the  unfortunate  posi- 
tion of  having  performed  a  great  service  to  the  body  and  then  of 
being  obliged  to  injure  it.  Accompanied  by  fruits  arid  vege- 
tables, they  do  their  beneficent  work  and  then  are  transformed 
into  harmless  substances  in  preparation  for  being  eliminated  from 
the  body. 

It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  more  meat  and  eggs  a  per- 
son eats  the  more  fruits  and  vegetables  he  needs.  To  think,  there- 
fore, that  because  one  has  eaten  a  large  amount  of  meat  he  needs 
no  vegetables  or  fruit  is  a  mistake,  for  under  these  circumstances 
he  needs  vegetables  and  fruits  more  than  if  a  small  amount  of 


FIG.   130. — Roast  with  vegetable  macedoine  garnish. 

meat  only  had  been  eaten  (Fig.  130)-.  In  a  heavy  meal  of  meat, 
therefore,  allowance  should  be  made  for  fruits  and  vegetables. 
If  necessary,  this  should  be  done  by  the  cutting  down  of  fats  and 
sweets.  A  meat  or  vegetable  salad  or  fruit  for  dessert  follows 
more  logically  after  a  heavy  meat  course  than  such  desserts  as 
suet  puddings  or  pie  (Fig.  131). 

It  should  be  remembered,  also,  that  while  such  foods  as 
boiled  rice,  macaroni,  and  hominy  are  often  eaten  with  meat  or 
combined  with  it  in  the  making  of  extremely  attractive  dishes, 
they  are  not  substitutes  for  potatoes  in  the  diet.  When  one  of 
them  is  served  with  meat  the  housekeeper  should  think  of  it 
not  as  a  substitute  for  vegetables,  but  rather  as  taking  the  place 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  IN  THE  DIET  279' 

of  part  of  the  bread  usually  eaten  at  the  meal,  for  rice,  macaroni, 
or  hominy  has  exactly  the  same  uses  in  the  diet  that  bread  has. 
She  should,  therefore,  take  particular  pains  to  supply  some  other 
vegetable  in  the  form  of  a  salad  or  of  fruit  for  dessert  in  meals 
which  contain  meat  but  no  potatoes. 

Finally,  fruits  and  vegetables  are  an  important  source  of 
certain  recently  discovered  substances,  sometimes  called  vita- 
mines,  which  are  thought  to  promote  growth  in  children  and 
to  have  an  important  part  to  play  in  keeping  all  people,  old  as 
well  as  young,  in  good  physical  condition. 

FIG.  131.  FIG.  132. 


FIG.  131. — Fruit  macedoine. 
FIG.  132. — A  glass  of  currant  jelly. 

What  has  been  said  so  far  about  the  nutritive  value  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  applies  to  them  when  they  are  fresh  and 
undried.  After  they  have  been  dried  they  are  no  longer  watery 
foods,  but  contain  a  very  large  percentage  of  nourishing  ma- 
terial. Beans  and  peas,  when  dried,  contain  more  protein  than 
meat  does,  and  even  after  they  have  been  soaked  in  water  and 
cooked  they  are  considered  good  substitutes  for  meat  and  eggs. 
It  is  well,  therefore,  for  the  housekeeper,  when  she  plans  meals, 
to  class  the  dried  legumes  with  the  meats. 

The  well-ordered  meal  contains  good  bread,  or  a  cereal  food 


220 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


served  in  some  other  attractive  way ;  a  little  food  from  the  meat 
or  meat  substitutes,  enough  to  insure  sufficient  protein;  a  little 
butter  or  other  fat  to  give  richness;  a  little  sugar  or  other 
sweet  to  furnish  flavor,  and,  last  but  not  least,  a  vegetable  or  a 
fruit  (Fig.  132).  These  five  kinds  of  food  should  all  be  repre- 
sented in  the  diet  at  all  times.  The  varied  diet  which  contains  all 
of  these  five  kinds  of  food  is  needed  to  make  a  perfect  ration.  If 
one  is  lacking,  the  diet  will  be  deficient  in  some  thing  needed  for 
health  or  palatability.  The  time  was  when  the  winter  diet  was 


Fia.   133. — Canned  asparagus  and  pepper 


FIG.  134. — Log-cabin  salad  made  from 
canned  beans. 


always  one-sided  because  of  the  absence  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 
That  time  is  now  past,  or  should  be,  for  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge and  skill  in  canning  and  preserving  fruits  and  vegetables 
we  may  easily  have  a  complete  ration  all  the  year  round 
(Figs.  133  and  134). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  substances  that  should  be  included  in  a  healthful  diet — stating 

the  use  of  each  in  the  body. 

2.  Why   are    fruits    and    vegetables    absolutely    necessary    for    health    and 

physical  well-being? 

3.  What  constitutes  a  balanced  meal  when  a  large  portion  of  meat  is  served? 

4.  Name  some  substitutes  for  bread  and  outline  two  combinations   for  a 

meal  which  contains  these  substitutes. 

5.  What  newly   discovered  substance  has  been  found   in   fruits  and  vege- 

tables ?     What  is  the  function  of  these  substances  ? 

6.  What  dried  vegetables  can  be  substituted  .for  meat? 

7.  What  is  contained  in  a  well-ordered  meal? 

8.  How  can  you  plan  to  have  this  complete  ration  all  the  year? 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  IN  THE  DIET  281 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  BARROWS,   ANNA,   and   LINCOLN,   M.   J.,   "  Home  Science  Cook   Book," 

1904.     Published  by  Whitcomb  &  Barrows,  Boston,  Mass.     $1. 

2.  BITTING,  A.  W.  and  K.  G.,  "  Canning  and  How  to  Use  Canned  Foods," 

1916.  Published  by  the  National  Canners'  Association,  Washington, 
D.  C.  30  cents. 

3.  "Creole  Cook  Book,"  1914.     Published  by  The  Picayune,  New  Orleans, 

La.     By  mail,  $1.25. 

4.  DAVIDIS,  HENRIETTE,  "  Practical  Cook  Book,"  1897.     Published  by  C.  N. 

Casper,  Milwaukee,  Wis.     $1.25. 

5.  FARMER,  FANNIE  MERRITT,  "  Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book,"  1907. 

Published  by  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.     $1.80. 

6.  Fox,  MINNIE  C.,  "Blue  Grass  Cook  Book,"   1904.     Published  by  Fox, 

Duffield  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.     $1.50. 

7.  FRENCH,  ALLEN,  "  The  Book  of  Vegetables  and  Garden  Herbs,"  1870. 

Published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.    $1.75. 

8.  KINNE,  HELEN,  and  COOLEY,  ANNA  M.,  "  Foods  and  Household  Manage- 

ment," 1915.  Published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City, 
N.  Y.  $1.10. 

9.  Lippincott's  Home  Manual  on  Food. 

10.  SPRING,  HELEN  M.,  "  Individual  Recipes  in  Use  at  Drexel  Institute," 

1909.  Published  by  John  C.  Winston  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
25  cents. 

11.  SOUTHWORTH,  MAY  E.,  "  101  Mexican  Dishes,"  1914.    Published  by  Paul 

Elder  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Calif.     75  cents. 

12.  "  Uncle  Sam's  Cook  Book,"  a  price  list  of  bulletins  on  foods  and  cook- 

ing, American  foods  and  cooking,  United  States  Government.  The 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

13.  WILSON,  ELIZABETH  L.,  and  HUGGINS,  MOLLIE,  "  Good  Things  to  Eat." 

1909.  Published  by  the  Publishing  House  of  the  M.  E.  Church, 
South,  Smith  &  Lamar,  Agents,  Nashville,  Tenn.  $3. 

14.  ROSE,  MARY  SWARTZ,  "Feeding  the  Family."     Published  by  Macmillan 

Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y.    $2.10. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION 

CANNING  Club  and  Home  Demonstration  Work  is  conducted 
under  the  cooperative  agreement  between  the  several  state  col- 
leges of  agriculture  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. In  the  South  all  this  work  is  directed  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  state  and  county  agents.  In  the  North  and  West  this  work 
is  part  of  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  Club  Work  and  is  supervised  by 
state  leaders,  assistant  leaders,  district  workers,  and,  in  some 
places,  county  agents.  In  the  419  counties  organized  in  the  South 
in  1916  there  were  about  60,000  girls  enrolled  to  carry  on  can- 
ning and  poultry  club  work,  together  with  related  activities  in 
sewing,  cooking,  and  gardening. 

Aim. — One  of  the  objects  of  the  work  is  to  develop  a  skill  that 
shall  increase  the  economic  earnings  of  girls  and  women  in  the 
country.  Their  home  has  many  functions  not  performed  by  the 
city  home.  It  is  a  producing  as  well  as  a  consuming  center.  Its 
contribution  to  the  income  of  the  farm,  especially  in  saving  the 
waste  and  expense  of  conducting  farming  operations,  often  meas- 
ures the  difference  between  profitable  farming  and  unprofitable 
farming.  The  skill  and  business  ability  of  farm  housewives  and 
children  are  a  notable  contribution  to  the  economic  resources  of 
the  farm.  In  many  cases  incomes  must  be  increased  before  stand- 
ards of  living  can  be  raised  or  progressive  community  enterprises 
fostered.  Proceeding  upon  this  basis,  the  work  in  the  South  has 
added  materially  to  the  wealth,  health,  and  happiness  of  country 
people. 

Financing  the  Work. — In  the  beginning,  generous  financial 
help  from  the  General  Education  Board — the  corporate  trustees 
of  a  fund  of  more  than  $50,000,000  given  by  John  D.  Rockefeller 
for  educational  purposes — made  possible  the  free  development  of 
this  work.  This  was  soon  followed  by 'state  and  county  appro- 
priations. In  1914  Congress  made  appropriations  to  take  the 
282 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  283 

place  of  those  being  made  by  the  General  Education  Board,  and 
the  Smith-Lever  Extension  Act  of  1914  brought  its  first  Federal 
appropriations  in  1915,  thus  giving  permanent  support  to  demon- 
stration work  in  agriculture  and  home  economics.  In  1917  there 
was  in  the  15  Southern  an  organization  of  about  500  counties 
supervised  by  13  state,  21  assistant  state,  15  district,  and  494 
county  agents,  making  a  total  of  543. 

During  1914-1915  in  forty  states  slightly  over  $320,000  was 
spent  in  home  economics  demonstrations,  while  in  1916-1917 
in  forty-eight  states  $750,000  was  allotted,  an  increase  of  over 
130  per  cent  in  two  years.  This  money  was  derived  from  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  state  colleges  of 
agriculture,  Federal  anl  state  cooperative  extension  act  funds,  and 
county  and  other  local  sources.  In  1916  the  allotment  of  funds 
for  extension  work  for  farm  women  was  derived  from  the  follow- 
ing sources:  $107,000  from  funds  appropriated  directly  to  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  $260,000  from  Federal 
extension  act  funds,  $120,000  from  state  extension  act  funds, 
$32,000  from  direct  state  appropriations  in  addition  to  the 
amount  appropriated  by  the  state  to  offset  the  Federal  coopera- 
tive extension  funds,  $178,000  from  county  appropriations,  and 
about  $80,000  from  other  miscellaneous  sources.1 

Initial  Work. — Following  the  development  of  United  States 
Farm  Demonstration  Work  as  a  means  of  instructing  farm  men 
and  subsequently  of  boys'  corn  clubs,  because  boys  also  insisted 
upon  being  enrolled  as  "  demonstrators,"  there  was  a  very  in- 
sistent demand  for  activities  for  girls  which  should  give  them 
opportunity  to  carry  on  skilful  work  in  their  homes  and  enter  into 
friendly  contest  with  one  another.  The  opportunity  to  influence 
and  instruct  adults  through  the  interests  of  their  children  was 
recognized  from  the  first. 

Activities  which  have  fundamental  connection  with  every 
country  home,  and  which  involve  the  need  for  accurate  informa- 
tion and  skill  in  doing,  were  selected.  During  1910  some  girls' 
tomato  clubs  were  organized  in  South  Carolina  and  Virginia,  with 

*NoTE. — Statement,  also  table  showing  total  amount  of  funds  avail- 
able for  extension  work  among  farm  women,  is  quoted  from  the  "  Weekly 
News  Letter  "  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


284 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


WOMEN  COUNTY  AGENTS  AND  FUNDS  AVAILABLE  FOR  EXTENSION  WORK 
AMONG  FARM  WOMEN 


State 

1914-'15 

1915-'16 

1916-'  17 

Number 
of 
counties 
with 
women 
agents, 
July  1, 
1914 

Funds 
for 
home 
eco- 
nomics 
work 

Number 
of 
counties 
with 
women 
agents, 
July  1, 
1915 

Total 
number 
of 
women 
extension 
workers 

Funds 
for 
home 
eco- 
nomics 
work 

Number 
of 
counties 
with 
women 
agents, 
July  1, 
1916 

Funds 
for 
home 
eco- 
nomics 
work 

18 

'is 

'24 
29 

"9 
13 

$16,156 
'  ii',262 
"3,752 

'"643 
22,211 
14,222 
3,014 
2,978 
4,780 
19,052 
6,897 
15,732 
9,058 

19 
'26 

'27 

48 

'i6 

13 

"o 

33 

39 
1 
37 

"a 

1 
1 

33 

54 
5 
3 
7 
9 
8 
C5 
22 
1 
13 
4 
5 

(2) 

38 
3 
2 
5 
1 
4 

"3 
4 
38 
4 
9 
29 
12 
2 
1 
38 
(2) 
40 
37 
6 
1 
25 
3 
12 
4 

$19,510 
1,558 
20,767 
2,626 
3,250 

'  T.899 
32,135 
28,321 
3,450 
15,450 
4,000 
28,800 
9,236 
19,056 
13,640 
1,425 
11,230 
4,667 
4,474 
7,715 
25,964 

"S'JOO 
4,950 
1,050 
2,150 
4,099 
2,300 
6,250 
43,265 
5,300 
16,400 
24,095 
3,150 
6,060 
1,925 
41,390 

'25,554 

24,288 
5,287 
2,500 
24,337 
3,092 
13,946 
9,000 
2,800 

27 
'34 
"2 

'36 
54 

i 

'?5 
16 

"7 
1 
1 

'38 

i 
"i 

"i 

48 

"i 

30 

"i 
'32 
'34 

39 
2 

'28 
'l4 

$28,870 
1,100 
44,628 
5,000 
3,334 
2,600 
2,100 
40,373 
53,500 
4,200 
16,200 
4,700 
31,930 
12,351 
26,250 
22,805 
2,966 
12,880 
4,888 
7,000 
8,390 
34,288 
8,500 
5,600 
7,600 
914 
5,600 
4,800 
2,400 
15,075 
53,623 
7,990 
19,495 
30,076 
3,835 
7,300 
1,600 
51,887 
1,685 
43,092 
36,920 
5,825 
2,700 
33,357 
4,300 
17,413 
8,160 
2,950 

Arkansas  

California  

Colorado  
Connecticut  

Delaware  
Florida 

Georgia  

Idaho  

Illinois  

Indiana.  .  .  . 

Iowa  

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana  

Maine 

Maryland  

5 

4,102 
4,636 
1,518 
4,756 
18,553 

Massachusetts  
Michigan  
Minnesota 

33 

Montana  
Nebraska  
Nevada 

'27 

1,804 
5,057 
1,844 
978 
1,774 
1,474 
5,050 
25,719 

'34 

New  Hampshire  .... 
New  Jersey  

New  Mexico 

New  York  

North  Carolina  
North  Dakota  
Ohio  

19 

'21 
'is 

26 

12,760 
11,123 
4,016 
1,767 
1,667 
20565 
2,112 
12,231 
17,040 
2,191 

'24 

'24 

'24 
27 

'22 

'io 

Oklahoma  
Oregon 

Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina  
South  Dakota  
Tennessee  
Texas.  .  . 

Utah. 

Vermont 

Virginia  

17 
"5 

15,438 
2,429 
7,630 

"2,958 

Washington  

West  Virginia  
Wisconsin.  .  .  . 

Wyoming  
Total  

279 

$320,979 

350 

602       1  $538,061 

478 

$755,990 

2  Figures  not  available. 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  335 

the  aid  of  teachers  and  other  school  officials.  These  girls  culti- 
vated tenth-acre  plots  of  tomatoes,  following  some  simple  in- 
structions furnished  by  the  Office  of  Farm  Demonstration  Work, 
and  canning  their  vegetables  under  the  instruction  of  one  of  its 
representatives.  The  results  of  this  experiment  were  made  the 
basis  during  the  next  year  for  the  organization  of  from  two  to 
four  counties  each  in  the  states  of  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  and 
Mississippi,  under  the  leadership  of  women  who  were  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  each  state  and  with  the  aid  of  a  few  county 
workers  whose  services  were  secured  for  brief  periods  in  the  can- 
ning season.  In  1912  eleven  states  had  workers  in  charge  with 
160  counties  organized,  and  in  1917  every  Southern  state  was 
organized,  and  similar  plans  are  rapidly  developing  in  the  North 
and  West. 

The  State  Agent. — In  the  beginning  of  the  girls '  canning  club 
work  a  state  agent  or  organizer  was  appointed.  To  help  her  in 
each  county  organized,  a  capable  woman  was  secured  for  about 
two  months  in  the  year  to  hold  the  canning  demonstrations  in  the 
summer  and  give  what  volunteer  help  she  could  in  spring  and  fall. 
The  clubs  were  organized  and  the  first  instruction  was  given 
through  the  schools  where  the  girls  could  be  met  in  groups.  Cor- 
respondence and  an  occasional  visit  from  the  county  agent  had 
to  suffice  as  instruction  and  supervision  until  the  canning  season 
opened,  when  regular  field  meetings,  in  way  of  canning  demon- 
strations for  groups  of  members,  were  held  at  central  points  in  the 
county.  Again  in  autumn,  the  collecting  of  results  and  the  hold- 
ing of  an  exhibit  of  canned  products  were  largely  volunteer  work 
of  the  county  agent.  The  results  which  these  workers  obtained 
were  so  notable  that  in  a  short  time  this  general  plan  was  adopted 
permanently,  the  period  of  employment  for  the  county  agent  in- 
creasing rapidly  to  nine  or  twelve  months. 

The  girls'  canning  clubs,  with  a  tenth-acre  garden  as  the  basis 
of  each  individual's  work,  have  made  possible  a  gradually  evolved 
four  years'  program  of  work  which  thousands  of  girls  have 
eagerly  entered  upon.  Each  year  finds  a  larger  percentage  of 
these  girls  continuing  the  program  and  finishing  the  season's 
activities.  As  in  all  real  demonstration  work,  the  girl  becomes 
a  "demonstrator."  She  agrees  to  follow  instructions  and  use 


286 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


approved  methods ;  her  work  and  its  results  being  accomplished 
with  more  skill,  greater  efficiency,  and  showing  finer  quality  than 
that  which  has  heretofore  been  known,  become  an  object  lesson  for 

others  and  the  center  of  in- 
fluence in  the  home  and  com- 
munity. Each  season  brings 
its  characteristic  activity  of 
natural  work,  accompanied 
by  the  stimulus  of  individual 
ownership  and  group  contests 
in  skill  and  definite  accom- 
plishment. 

Four-year  Program  of 
Work. — Since  the  mastery  of 
some  definite  phase  of  work 
is  essential  for  each  year,  a 
systematic  program  has  been 
worked  out.  During  the  first 
year  the  girls  select  tomatoes 
as  their  main  crop,  learning 
a  great  deal  about  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  vegetable  and  how 
to  market  both  fresh  and 
canned  products.  They  ac- 
quire considerable  horticul- 
tural skill  in  managing  their 
gardens.  The  financial  rec- 
ords they  keep  give  a  good 
business  training.  For  the 
public  demonstrations  which 
they  give  for  the  benefit  of 
their  communities,  these  girls 
find  it  necessary  to  make  at- 
tractive uniforms,  aprons, 
caps,  towels,  holders,  etc.  This  gives  sewing  a  very  definite  place 
in  their  work,  and  it  is  done  for  a  special  purpose  rather  than 
for  the  sake  of  a  lesson. 


FIG.  135. — "The  home  women  of  the  coun- 
try, if  they  will  give  their  minds  fully  to  this 
vital  subject  of  food  conservation  and  train 
themselves  in  household  thrift,  can  make 
of  the  housewife's  apron  a  uniform  of  national 
significance." —  D.  F.  HOUSTON,  Secretary  of 
Agriculture. 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION 


287 


An  instance  of  the  use  of  such  uniforms  is  given  in  the  report 
of  a  county  agent,  as  follows : 

"  The  meeting  at  Pheba  was  especially  interesting.  Sixteen  canning 
club  girls  in  white  uniform,  cap,  and  apron  gave  a  program  with  club  songs 
and  yells.  Afterwards  they  served  a  two-course  luncheon  to  the  mothers 
and  teachers.  The  latter  were  especially  interested  and  announced  their 
intention  of  going  back  to  their  schools  and  have  their  club  members  make 
capa  and  aprons  and  learn  the  club  songs." 


FIG.   136. — A  comfortable  garden  uniform. 

The  use  of  these  uniforms  has  a  tendency  to  make  popular 
suitable  working  clothes  for  girls  and  women.  Advanced  girls 
continue  their  sewing  by  making  uniform  dresses  of  appropriate 
design  and  material.  In  a  number  of  the  states  they  have  chosen 
pink  or  blue  chambray  for  their  dress  material,  each  member  hav- 


288 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  ^ND  PRESERVING 


ing  the  privilege  of  choosing  either  color  she  prefers.  With  this 
combination  of  attractive  pink  and  blue  dresses,  with  white  uni- 
form aprons  and  caps,  a  group  of  these  girls,  with  their  county 
agents  in  all-white,  resemble  a  huge  bunch  of  sweet  peas.  Tan 
or  gray  linen  crash  makes  very  neat  uniforms  when  worn  with 
the  white  aprons.  In  some  sections  near  the  coast  where  colored 
material  quickly  fades,  white  uniforms  are  more  satisfactory  for 


FIG.  137. — Another  style  of  garden  uniform. 

canning  work.  Of  course,  the  uniform  dress  worn  for  this  work 
should  be  light  weight,  and  of  such  material  as  can  be  often  and 
easily  washed.  In  1916,  in  419  organized  counties  in  the  15  South- 
ern States,  21,172  girls  reported  the  making  of  23,767  aprons, 
caps,  holders,  and  towels,  and  3875  uniform  dresses  to  be  worn  for 
public  demonstrations  (Fig.  135). 

The  white  dresses  are  not  appropriate  for  the  garden  work 
among  vines  and  dirt,  as  they  soil  easily  and  are  likely  to  become 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION 


289 


stained.  The  gardening  uniform  which  has  been  adopted  in  some 
sections  is  the  bloomer  and  middy  blouse  combination.  The 
regular  gymnasium  bloomers  are  suitable  for  this  purpose.  Women 
working  in  agriculture  because  of  war  conditions  abroad  adopted 
the  bloomers  for  reason  of  comfort,  convenience,  and  economy. 
The  bloomer  overalls  for  women  are  on  the  market  in  America, 
and  have  been  adopted  in  several  factories  (Figs.  136,  137, 
and  138). 

An  attractive  gardening  set  consisting  of  an  apron  for  tools 
and  a  kneeling  pad  might  be  made  of  matting,  burlap,  denim, 


FIG.   138. — Garden  uniform. 

oilcloth,  or  heavy  canvas.  Matting  lined  with  brown  denim  and 
bound  with  red  tape  makes  an  attractive  color  combination 
and  is  very  suitable  material,  because  the  color  does  not  show 
soil  easily. 

This  equipment  is  easily  made  and  will  be  found  most  useful 
in  the  garden,  especially  during  the  transplanting  seasons.  The 
making  of  the  garden  kneeling  pad  and  apron  gives  opportunity 
for  teaching  something  about  sewing  and  will  arouse  more  interest 
in  garden  work.  The  garden  pad  is  used  to  kneel  upon  when 
planting  seeds  and  transplanting  plants.  This  work  can  be  done 
19 


£90  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

with  more  ease  and  comfort,  and  the  use  of  the  pad  and  apron 
will  protect  the  clothing  a  great  deal  when  working  in  the  garden. 
The  pocket  arrangement  in  the  pad  is  convenient  for  carrying  the 
small  plants  which  are  to  be  transplanted.  The  apron  is  a  com- 
panion piece  and  is  used  for  carrying  tools — planting  stick, 
pruning  shears,  trowel,  and  garden  line.  A  small  pocket  for  seeds 
might  be  stitched  on  the  front  of  the  middle  pocket  to  make  the 
apron  a  little  more  complete  (Fig.  163,  p.  341). 

During  the  second  year  two  vegetable  crops  are  cultivated, 
these  being  chosen  with  definite  regard  to  home  needs  and  mar- 
keting conditions.  In  addition  to  the  canned  vegetables,  many 
clubs  market  soup  mixtures,  sauces,  and  special  products  which 
have  been  originated  for  them,  like  Dixie  relish  and  B.  S.  Chutney. 
Sewing  is  continued  in  the  making  of  uniform  dresses  of  attrac- 
tive and  appropriate  design  and  material. 

During  the  next  two  years  perennial  gardens  are  started  and 
either  small  fruits  or  perennial  vegetables,  suited  to  the  locality 
or  especially  attractive  for  market,  are  planted.  Many  girls 
who  have  proceeded  thus  far  are  ready  to  make  a  reputation  for 
special  products  from  Southern  fruits,  such  as  the  fig,  scupper- 
nong,  May  haw,  and  guava,  or  to  succeed  admirably  with  the 
Spanish  pepper,  for  which  a  great  demand  exists.  The  prepara- 
tion of  their  vegetable  products  for  the  table  and  contests  in 
bread  making  are  given  considerable  place.  In  many  instances 
winter  gardening  is  carried  on  extensively. 

With  the  increased  supply  of  wholesome  food,  by  means  of 
the  fall  garden,  canning  and  poultry  club  products,  the  agent  has 
a  wonderful  opportunity  in  the  fall  and  winter  to  get  into  the 
kitchens  and  teach  the  preparation  and  combination  of  these 
products  for  serving. 

SUGGESTED  PROGRAM   FOR  LOCAL  GIRLS'  CLUB  MEETINGS  * 

February 

Call   meeting  to   order.     Organize. 

Distribute  daily  record  books,  explain  same  and  urge  the  importance 
of  attending  all  club  meetings,  local,  spring  and  fall  rallies,  institutes, 
and  fairs. 

Discuss  soil  best  suited  to  tomatoes,  Bordeaux  mixture,  construction  of 
hotbed  and  cold  frame  (show  model,  if  possible),  and  choice  of  seed. 

3  By  Miss  Minnie  L.  Garrison,  County  Agent,  Edgemoor,  S.  C. 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  291 

March 

Call   meeting   to   order.     Roll-call.     Minutes    (review   of    last  lesson). 
Reports  of  work  done  since  last  meeting. 

Measurement  of  one-tenth  acre  plot  and  preparation. 

Transplanting  to  cold  frames,  etc. 

Bookbinding  for  cook  books,  histories,  etc. 

Game  or  club  yell. 

April 

Call  meeting  to  order.     Roll-call.     Minutes. 

Vary  with  bread  and  poultry  program. 

Bread. — Judging  bread. 

Distribute  helpful  bulletins. 

Refreshments — eggs  in  nest  or  goldenrod. 

Poultry. — Talks  on  poultry,  breeds,  hatching,  etc. 

Demonstrate  candling  or  testing  eggs. 

Decorate  Easter  eggs  or  have  egg  hunt.     Remind  girls  of  true  meaning 
of  Easter. 

Kodak  pictures. 

May 

Call  meeting  to  order.     Roll-call.     Minutes. 

Plain  sewing,  based  on  uniform  cap  and  apron.     Apron  party. 

Distribute  copies   of  club   songs  and  yells.     Practice  same  for  spring 
meeting. 

Other  instructions  concerning  special  meeting. 

June 

Call   meeting  to  order.     Roll-call.     Minutes.     Reports  on  benefits   de- 
rived from  having  attended  spring  meetings. 
Study  cultural  instructions. 
Visit  plot  and  give  comments. 

Demonstrations.     Pruning  and  staking,  repeat  Bordeaux  spray,  etc. 
Discuss  cook  books,  recipes,  and  drawings  for  same. 
Serve  salads,  utilizing  vegetables. 
Kodak  pictures,  music. 

July 

Fireless  cooker.     Canning  demonstration. 
Call  meeting  to  order.     Roll-call.     Minutes. 
List  of  canning  supplies,  literature  prepared  in  advance. 
Canning  demonstration,  using  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Emphasize  grading,  sterilization,  full  pack,  attractive  pack  and  quality. 
Dinner. 

Get  together,  talk  over  morning's  work.     Demonstrate  jelly  making. 
Suggest  "  Canning  Christmas  Presents." 
Distribute  literature  before  leaving. 
Songs  and  yells. 


292  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Call  meeting  to  order.     Roll-call.     Minutes. 
Practice  canning  special  products. 
Basket  making. 

September 

Literary  program.     Short  business  meeting. 

Roll-call — answer  with  current  events,  etc.  Magazine  article  or  report 
on  interesting  library  book. 

Read  sketch  of  Doctor  Knapp's  life. 

Word  building,  using  letters  composing  club  motto. 

Puzzle — dissected  labels. 

Show  pictures  of  good  exhibits  with  projector  if  possible. 

October 

Call  meeting  to  order.     Roll-call.     Minutes. 
Go  over  records  again.     Sum  up. 
Demonstrate  labelling,  packing,  etc.,  for  fairs. 
Judging  canned  goods. 
Assign  work  for  girls  during  fair. 

Cooperation  Between  School  and  Home. — It  can  be  easily 
seen  that  all  of  these  activities  are  carried  on  in  the  home  and 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  life  of  the  girls  themselves,  but  every- 
where the  schools  are  taking  a  very  active  part  in  promoting  this 
work.  The  cooperation  of  the  teacher  is  always  essential. 

In  each  community  organized  the  girls  are  selected  and  en- 
rolled through  the  school  early  enough  to  undertake  gardening 
After  the  club  members  have  been  enrolled  and  they  have  selected 
plots  for  their  one-tenth  acre  gardens  the  teacher  can  render  valu- 
able assistance.  With  her  aid  the  girls  study  the  instructions  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  information  as  to  how  to  carry  on  the 
work  at  home.  The  teacher  giving  the  best  cooperation  correlates 
the  work  with  regular  lessons  in  reading,  arithmetic,  language, 
drawing,  and  really  makes  it  a  part  of  the  school  life.  She  often 
organizes  the  members  into  clubs  and  holds  the  first  meeting  at 
the  school.  Here  they  are  taught  the  construction  of  a  hotbed 
or  cold  frame,  and  sometimes  one  is  built  on  the  south  side  of  the 
school  building ;  plants  are  raised  in  it  for  the  home  gardens,  and 
a  number  of  lessons  are  based  on  the  planting  and  care  of  these 
beds.  When  these  plants  have  grown  large  and  strong  enough 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  293 

to  transplant,  a  meeting  is  planned  at  the  home  of  some  club  mem- 
ber, where  they  learn  the  principles  of  transplanting. 

Club  work  furnishes  constant  opportunity  to  enliven  school- 
room routine  with  vital  interests  and  fine  motives  for  study. 
Many  instances  of  the  helpful  reaction  which  these  clubs  have 
upon  the  schools  have  been  reported.  In  a  similar  way  they  give 
the  schools  a  better  opportunity  to  bring  influences  to  bear  di- 
rectly upon  the  homes. 

Community  Activities. — By  the  time  school  closes  the  work 
has  reached  an  interesting  stage  and  the  club  members  continue 
to  work  together.  At  this  season  the  county  agent  meets  with 
the  clubs  on  the  one-tenth  acre  plot,  gives  cultural  instructions, 
and  makes  preparation  for  the  canning  work.  Midsummer  brings 
the  canning  season,  and  here  again  at  the  home  of  the  club  mem- 
ber having  the  first  ripe  tomatoes  the  girls  of  the  community 
meet  to  work  together,  with  the  county  agent  demonstrating  how 
to  take  each  step  in  the  canning,  and  the  girls  doing  the  actual 
work  under  her  supervision.  After  one  or  two  such  demonstra- 
tions the  girls  acquire  sufficient  experience  to  give  a  public 
demonstration  in  canning,  at  which  the  neighbors  are  taught 
what  the  girls  are  already  skilled  in  doing. 

Cooperation  for  community  development  or  benefit  to  the 
group  is  now  beginning  among  farm  people.  Club  members 
often  undertake  it  more  readily  than  their  parents. 

Instances  of  neighborly  cooperation  are  not  rare.  One  county 
agent  reported  that  upon  visiting  one  little  girl,  named  Gladys, 
she  found  that  she  had  been  ill  for  two  weeks  and  unable  to  set 
out  her  tomato  plants,  which  were  fast  becoming  too  large  to  be 
transplanted  easily.  Upon  the  agent 's  visit  to  the  next  home  she 
reported  the  instance,  and  a  member  of  the  same  club  immediately 
suggested  that  they  get  together  and  do  the  transplanting.  In  a 
short  time  six  girls  met  at  Gladys's  home.  The  little  sick  girl 
was  able  to  be  carried  out  in  a  chair  and  sit  in  the  shade  to  watch 
the  others  happy  at  work  transplanting  the  tomatoes  for  her. 
Words  failed  and  tears  came  instead  when  she  tried  to  thank  her 
friends  for  this  kindness. 

A  county  agent  reported  that  the  home  of  one  of  her  club 


294  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

members  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Before  she  had  opportunity  to 
visit  this  community,  the  president  of  the  club  had  called  a  meet- 
ing and  its  members  had  arranged  to  give  a  "shower"  of  canned 
products  to  the  club  member  to  whose  family  this  loss  had  oc- 
curred. 

Not  only  is  individual  initiative  aroused,  but  elements  of  lead- 
ership are  developed  in  country  communities  where  they  are  most 
needed.  As  a  means  of  developing  leadership,  many  state  schools 
give  short  courses  for  prize-winning  club  members  from  the 
various  counties.  These  girls  have  proved  their  efficiency  by  suc- 
cessful work  and  already  possess  qualities  of  leadership.  Upon 
being  given  definite  instruction  in  even  a  few  lines  of  work  they 
can  be  inspired  to  return  to  their  communities  and  extend  to 
others  the  same  aid.  These  girls  frequently  become  the  officers 
of  their  clubs  and  the  local  representatives  through  whom  the 
county  agent  works  in  developing  many  community  enterprises. 

During  one  short  course  each  prize  winner  gave  the  story  of 
her  year's  work  and  told  how  she  spent  the  money  earned  from 
her  tenth-acre  garden.  One  girl  had  for  two  successive  years  paid 
her  expenses  at  the  county  high  school  out  of  her  earnings ;  an- 
other was  helping  her  brother  through  college ;  another  purchased 
a  fine  cow,  and  still  another  enabled  her  father  to  hold  his  cotton 
until  spring  by  making  her  funds  available  for  certain  family 
expenses.  In  every  instance  the  business  experience  was  one 
which  reflected  dignity  and  judgment. 

The  County  Agent. — It  can  be  readily  seen  that  the  centers 
of  influence  in  demonstration  work  are  the  farms  and  homes 
where  individuals,  perhaps  a  modest  little  girl  or  quiet,  home- 
loving  woman,  make  the  demonstrations  which  teach  a  lesson  to  an 
entire  community.  This  lesson  carries  greater  weight  and  is 
more  convincing  than  if  made  by  a  skilled  specialist  from  a  dis- 
tant institution,  but  it  can  be  accomplished  successfully  only 
when  there  exists  an  organization  whose  leaders  have  won  perma- 
nent place  in  the  confidence  and  affection  of  the  people  with 
whom  they  work.  In  the  organization  of  home  demonstration 
work  in  the  South  the  county  agent  holds  this  important  place. 
A  state  agent  with  headquarters  at  the  State  College  of  Agri- 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  295 

culture  directs  the  work,  and  frequently  technical  help  is  given 
by  specialists  who  come  from  the  same  institution.  The  state 
agent  is,  in  an  important  way,  the  connecting  link  between  the 
county  agent  and  the  force  of  extension  workers  whose  head- 
quarters are  at  the  state  colleges  and  in  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

The  county  agent  becomes  the  personal  medium  through  which 
information  is  furnished  and  by  whom  skilful  demonstrations 
are  directed.  The  efficient  county  agent  must  be  a  leader  and  an 
organizer.  She  must  possess  fine  sympathy  and  good  judgment. 
Her  knowledge  of  people  and  conditions  in  her  county  must  be 
wide  and  accurate.  To  all  this  there  must  be  added  good  training 
in  home  economics  and  a  constantly  increasing  knowledge  of  the 
lighter  branches  of  agriculture,  such  as  horticulture,  dairying, 
and  poultry  raising. 

Demonstration  work  for  women  has  made  most  rapid  progress 
where  preceded  by  at  least  a  year  of  work  among  girls.  Definite 
results  are  more  quickly  obtained  among  young  people  who  have 
high  enthusiasm  and  who,  fortunately,  lack  experiences  which 
suggest  failure  and  who  are  without  a  sense  of  caution  which 
previous  failures  suggest  to  the  mature  mind  when  new  enter- 
prises or  new  methods  are  proposed.  Then,  too,  the  mother's 
gratitude  for  training  given  to  her  daughter  paves  the  way  for 
active  acceptance  on  her  part  of  instruction  and  help. 

Demonstrations  Among  Women. — Improvement  in  manage- 
ment of  rural  homes  has  not  kept  pace  with  that  of  the  farm  itself, 
nor  can  it  be  compared  to  the  management  of  the  city  home  from 
which  has  been  taken  every  creative  industry.  For  these  reasons, 
one  line  of  demonstration  which  has  been  eagerly  undertaken 
by  hundreds  of  women  is  the  making  and  use  of  labor-saving 
devices  and  securing  more  labor-saving  equipment  from  the  out- 
side. The  economic  needs  of  women  on  farms  demand  greater 
skill  in  the  constructive  activities  which  are,  fortunately,  theirs 
to  manage  and  from  which  the  opportunity  for  financial  income 
and  the  satisfaction  of  creative  work  of  high  order  rightfully 
come.  Therefore,  demonstrations  in  poultry  raising,  home  dairy- 
ing, etc.,  are  among  the  first  to  be  undertaken. 


296  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

A  form  of  organization  which  has  been  found  very  successful 
is  that  for  the  cooperative  marketing  of  products  which  results 
from  certain  demonstrations.  Of  these,  some  of  the  most  success- 
ful have  been  organized  for  the  purpose  of  disposing  of  poultry 
products.  In  one  county  nine  egg  circles  sold  4370  dozen  eggs 
in  a  few  months.  The  products  were  so  carefully  graded  that  bet- 
ter prices  were  secured  for  them  than  had  been  received  by  indi- 
viduals before  carrying  on  the  work  cooperatively. 

Demonstrations  involving  the  preparation  of  food  for  the 
table,  and  sanitary  measures,  are  also  popular.  While  the  reports 
do  not  show  the  extent  of  the  work,  it  is  interesting,  however,  to 
note  that  during  the  year  1916  the  county  women  agents  enrolled 
and  instructed  37,255  girls  in  canning  clubs,  8911  girls  in  poultry 
clubs,  21,083  women  as  home  demonstrators,  and  2211  women  in 
poultry  clubs.  The  number  of  clubs  organized  for  women  during 
this  year  was  963 ;  a  total  of  27,260  meetings  was  held,  with  an 
attendance  of  476,366.  The  number  of  girls  reporting  results 
from  canning  work  was  21,605.  Of  this  number,  7058  made  dem- 
onstrations in  cooking  club  products  and  11,384  made  bread 
demonstrations.  There  were  reported  350  scholarships  won  as 
prizes  by  the  club  girls.  The  total  number  of  containers  of  fruit 
and  vegetables  packed  by  the  women  and  girls  under  demonstra- 
tion methods  was  3,318,481,  with  a  total  value  of  $669,839.56. 
The  total  number  of  winter  garden  demonstrations  by  the  girls 
and  women  was  7649.  A  total  number  of  37  egg  circles  was  or- 
ganized by  the  women  and  girls,  and  the  total  value  of  poultry 
products  was  $53,952.76. 

The  following  improvements  or  devices  were 'made  or  installed 
under  the  leadership  of  the  women  agents :  3058  homemade  fire- 
less  cookers  have  come  into  common  use,  accompanied  in  many 
instances  by  the  purchase  of  kerosene  stoves.  There  have  been 
reported  over  2000  demonstrations  made  in  the  use  of  a  homemade 
iceless  refrigerator  by  which  the  problems  of  the  sanitary  han- 
dling of  milk  and  improvement  in  butter  making  are  largely 
solved.  A  good  beginning  has  been  made  in  installing  264  home 
water  systems,  57  inexpensive  homemade  shower-baths,  and  a 
number  of  improved  sewage  disposals. 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  297 

In  a  number  of  counties  demonstrations  along  sanitary  lines 
were  begun  with  campaigns  against  flies  which  involved  the  mak- 
ing of  4505  fly-traps  in  a  short  time,  followed  by  other  active 
measures  against  this  pest.  One  thousand  two  hundred  and 
seventy  houses  have  been  screened  as  a  result  of  these  ' '  fly  cam- 
paigns. ' ' 

The  making  of  a  few  practical  devices  has  been  a  great  stim- 
ulus to  a  large  number  of  people  who  have  contributed  clever 
ideas  and  useful  models  for  many  kinds  of  work.  County  agents 
rapidly  receive  demands  for  advice  in  arranging  kitchens  and 
adding  built-in  conveniences.  To  meet  these  demands,  extension 
specialists  in  farm  mechanics  are  devoting  considerable  time  to 
assisting  the  county  agents  with  specifications  and  plans. 

Many  labor-saving  devices  have  been  made  or  installed  in  more 
conveniently  arranged  kitchens.  The  following  were  also  made 
in  1916  under  the  supervision  of  the  women  county  agents : 

Kitchen  cabinets    180 

Floor  mops   119 

Number  of  wheel  trays 225 

Number  of  ironing  boards 243 

Some  valuable  work  has  been  done  in  home  butter  making  for 
the  market.  In  addition  to  the  iceless  refrigerators,  the  following 
improved  home  dairy  equipment  has  been  made  or  purchased 
under  the  guidance  of  county  agents : 

Butter   paddles    635 

Butter    moulds 624 

Thermometers     241 

Shotgun  cans   (for  handling  milk) 214 

Barrel   churns    180 

Number  of  hand  butter-workers 79 

Number  of  pounds  of  butter  made  under  demonstra- 
tion methods    76,513 

In  any  demonstrations  undertaken,  whether  in  the  making  and 
use  of  labor-saving  devices,  in  better  utilization  of  farm  products 
for  the  table,  management  of  sanitary  or  hygienic  problems,  etc., 
it  must  be  recognized  that  in  addition  to  technical  information 
brought  from  the  outside  there  exist  in  any  community  many  ex- 
cellent practices  and  much  valuable  information  which  are  not  in 


298  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

common  use.  To  find  such  practices  and  arouse  individuals  to  a 
sense  of  their  obligation  in  extending  them  to  their  less  fortunate 
neighbors  is  often  a  valuable  part  of  the  work  of  the  county  agent. 
As  soon  as  this  is  undertaken,  or  whenever  a  few  individual  women 
successfully  carry  out  definite  demonstrations  in  their  homes,  ac- 
tive demand  arises  for  community  organization  which  shall  bring 
together  those  having  a  common  interest  in  some  line  of  work  and 
in  addition  give  opportunity  for  social  life  and  recreation.  Or- 
ganizations thus  developed  assume  a  permanent  place  in  their 
communities. 

With  the  initial  work  that  has  been  accomplished,  the  fine 
support  and  cooperation  given  by  many  existing  organizations 
and  institutions,  with  Federal,  state,  and  county  appropriations 
rapidly  being  made,  and  a  demand  for  the  organization  of  counties 
far  exceeding  each  year 's  possibilities,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  this 
phase  of  extension  work  is  permanently  established.  It  has  met 
the  need  of  the  most  progressive,  as  well  as  the  least  developed, 
homes  and  communities. 

The  county  agent  now  has  an  avenue  of  approach  into  every 
activity  of  the  home.  With  increased  opportunity  for  training, 
which  institutions  are  giving  by  adapting  their  courses  for  her 
need,  and  with  the  opportunity  for  permanent  service  in  her 
county,  the  work  of  the  county  woman  agent  will  continue  to  be 
a  most  potent  influence  for  progressive  and  happy  country 
homes. 

The  activities  described  are  typical  of  the  home  demonstra- 
tion work  now  being  conducted  in  the  15  Southern  States,  and 
are  fairly  comparable  with  that  more  recently  started  in  the  33 
Northern  and  Western  States. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  MARTIN,  O.  B.,  and  CRESWELL,  MARY  E.,  States  Relations  Service,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Circular  No.  A-82,  "  Canning  Club  and 
Home  Demonstration  Work." 

2.  MARTIN,  O.  B.,  and  HILL,  I.  W.,  States  Relations  Service,  U.  S.  Depart- 

ment   of   Agriculture,    Circular    No.    A-74,    "  Organization   of    Boys' 
Agricultural  Club  Work  in  the  Southern  States." 


CANNING  CLUB  ORGANIZATION  299 


3.  BENSON,  O.  H'.,  States  Relations  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Circular  No.  NR-31,  "  Suggestions  for  Organization  of  Mother- 
Daughter  Clubs,"  and  Circular  No.  NR-21,  "Farm  and  Handicraft 
Clubs." 

4.  WARD,  W.  F.,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 

ture, Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  5G6,  "  Organization  of  Boys'  Pig  Clubs." 

5.  LAMON,  HARRY  L.,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 

culture, Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  562,  "  Organization  of  Boys'  and 
Girls'  Poultry  Clubs." 

6.  Senate  Document  No.  537,  Government  Printing  Office,    1914,  "  Life  of 

Dr.  Seeman  A.  Knapp."  63rd  Congress,  2nd  session,  Senate  Docu- 
ment 537. 

7.  LORD,  ISABEL  ELY,  "  Costume  in  the  Cookery  Laboratory,"  Journal  of 

Home  Economics,  vol.  8,  No.  2,  Feb.,  1916,  American  Home  Eco- 
nomics Association,  Baltimore,  Md.  25  cents  per  copy,  $2  per  year. 

8.  CRESWELL,  MARY  E.,  and  POWELL,  OLA,  States  Relations  Service,  U.  S.  De- 

partment of  Agriculture,  Circular  No.  781,  "  Canning  Club  Cap  and 
Apron." 

9.  KNAPP,  BRADFORD,  and  CRESWELL,  MARY  E.,  "  The  Effect  of  Home  Demon- 

stration Work  on  the  Community  and  the  County  in  the  South," 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book.  $1.00.  Separate, 
No.  710,  1916. 

10.  SCOTT,    RHEA    C.,    "  Home    Labor-Saving    Devices,"    J.    B.    Lippincott 

Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.     $1.00. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING 

As  Outlined  by  the  North   Carolina  State  Agent  in  Home 

Demonstration  Work 

THAT  there  is  an  excellent  market  for  home-canned  products 
of  standard  grade  has  been  amply  proved  by  the  Girls '  Canning 
Clubs  of  the  South.  Just  as  soon  as  it  was  established  in  the 
minds  of  the  public  that  their  products  were  to  be  depended 
upon  for  an  extra  number  of  whole  fruit  of  uniform  color  and 
a  weight  running  up  to  the  maximum  in  a  can,  there  was  no 
trouble  in  getting  these  cans  on  the  pantry  shelves  of  the  house- 
wife, and,  later,  in  increasing  numbers  on  the  shelves  of  the 
grocer. 

Five  years  ago,  when  the  canning  clubs  first  began  to  can  in 
tin  for  the  market,  they  started  with  girls  eager  to  earn  money 
for  themselves  but  absolutely  untrained  in  the  art  of  putting 
vegetables  and  fruits  into  cans  and  sterilizing  them  sufficiently 
well  to  insure  their  keeping  qualities.  Fortunately,  these  girls 
were  young  and  impressionable,  and  they  went  in  whole-heart- 
edly to  carry  out  instructions  in  the  new  methods  of  canning 
which  the  state  supervisors  were  bringing  to  them. 

Marketing. — In  North  Carolina  it  was  back  in  1912  that  the 
problem  of  getting  the  products  before  the  consumer  began, 
although  the  girls  had  only  33,000  cans  and  these  all  filled  with 
tomatoes.  This  was  our  first  year  in  the  organization,  and  both 
supervisors  and  girls  were  inexperienced  in  the  commercial 
world.  I  can  remember  my  consternation  when  the  33,000  cans 
were  dumped  upon  me  to  sell,  and  every  little  club  girl  was 
asking  that  they  be  sold  immediately,  as  she  needed  her  money. 

Here  we  were  with  a  large  number  of  cans  to  be  disposed  of 
and  with  no  reputation  in  the  business  world — worse  than  none, 
in  fact,  for  we  had  to  shoulder  the  reputation  made  by  the  usual 
carelessly  packed  product  which  the  farmwife  brought  to  the 
grocer!  Thinking  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  sell  in  bulk,  I  sent 
samples  of  our  tomatoes  to  a  large  grocery  house  in  New  York. 
300 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  301 

The  products  were  examined  and  pronounced  excellent,  but  in 
one  of  the  cans  there  was  found  a  very  light-colored  tomato, 
and,  quite  properly,  the  firm  refused  to  take  any  product  that 
could  not  be  relied  upon  as  uniform  throughout. 

Standardizing. — This  criticism  at  the  very  outset  of  our 
marketing  career  probably  did  us  more  good  than  anything  that 
could  have  happened.  I  felt  that  there  might  te  a  light-colored 
tomato  secreted  in  every  one  of  those  33,000  cans,  and,  calling 
into  headquarters  the  fourteen  supervising  county  agents,  we 
had  a  heart-to-heart  conference  regarding  a  standard  pack,  and 
agreed  that  we  must  not  seek  an  outside  market  until  we  had 
proved  at  home  that  we  could  put  up  an  article  that  could  be 
relied  upon.  These  women  went  back  to  their  territories  to  dis- 
pose of  what  the  club  girls  had  produced  among  their  own  com- 
munity housewives.  If  any  can  was  found  not  to  be  what  it 
should  be  commercially  it  was  replaced  by  the  club  member  or 
money  was  refunded.  Strict  rules  and  regulations  regarding 
standards  were  enforced,  and  if  a  girl  infringed  the  rules,  ig- 
norantly  or  carelessly,  she  was  not  allowed  to  use  the  label. 

The  Girls'  Own  Responsibility. — In  a  surprisingly  short 
time  these  little  business  women  learned  the  necessity  of  uniform 
packs,  and  the  agents  set  to  work  inaugurating  market  cam- 
paigns and  inspiring  the  girls  to  assume  the  responsibility  of 
the  disposal  of  their  own  products.  This  they  did  by  loading 
wagons  with  cans  and  bringing  them  into  the  towns  and  villages, 
selling  in  this  manner  every  can  they  had  filled.  In  many  county 
papers  advertisements  were  run,  saying  that  beans,  peaches, 
tomatoes,  berries,  and  so  on,  would  be  brought  into  town  on  Satur- 
day by  the  canning  club  girls  and  orders  might  be  left  with  the 
county  agent,  whose  address  was  given. 

Sawmills  became  a  great  source  of  revenue,  many  girls  re- 
porting that  they  had  sold  out  to  the  "hands"  before  they  could 
put  the  labels  on  the  cans.  The  first  dealings  we  had  with 
merchants  were  sales  made  to  the  small  country  grocer  here  and 
there  who  found  his  supply  low  at  times  and  thought  he  might 
try  a  few  cans  of  this  ' '  homemade  stuff. ' '  As  our  output  began 
to  grow,  in  the  larger  towns  where  the  housewives  had  eaten  of 


302 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


CO-OPERATIVE  EXTENSION   WORK 

IN  AGRICULTURE  AND  HOME  ECONOMICS  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 
NORTH  CAROLINA  A.  &  M.  COLLEGE 

North  Carolina  State  Department  of  Agriculture.  Division  of  Home  Demonstration  Work. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Co-operating.  Division  of  Markets. 


Town  of , 

Date 

Name  of  Merchant 

Deliver  to 

SIGNATURE     CF     PURCHASER 

Street  No 

NORTH   CAROLINA  GIRLS'  CANNING   CLUB 

Doz,  Cans  Tomatoes        (& Per  Doz. 

"  "  StringBeans   ® "  " 

, "  "  Blackberries    @ "  " 

"  "  Peaches           @ "  " 

"  "  Soup  Mixture® "  " 

® "  " 

... ® "  " 

@ "  " 

Total        $ 

Approved 191 

FURTHER  ORDERS  FOR  CANNED  GOODS   MAY  BE  PLACED 
WITH  COUNTY  AGENT 


Town 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  303 

our  products  and  found  them  good,  we  decided  to  make  house- 
to-house  canvasses  to  secure  orders  through  grocers. 

Sales  Demonstration. — Certain  club  members  with  initiative 
were  given  order  books,  with  which  they  secured  quite  enough 
orders  from  the  housewives  to  make  the  4-H  brand  products 
well  worth  while  to  the  grocer.  Beautiful  exhibits  in  glass  were 
put  in  his  window  with  ' '  What  you  see  in  the  glass  you  will  find 
in  the  tin  ";  and,  if  he  desired  it,  the  county  supervisor,  with 
one  or  two  of  her  girls,  would  go  into  the  store  and  demonstrate 
the  different  ways  in  which  4-H  Brand  *  products  might  be  used. 
These  little  business  women  in  their  white  caps  and  aprons 
served  string-bean  salad,  tomato  bisque,  tomato  jelly,  or  demon- 
strated what  might  be  done  with  berries,  peaches,  corn,  or  kraut. 

Convincing  the  Retailer. — In  one  county  the  grocers  were 
quite  hard  to  convince  that  anything  made  at  home  could  pos- 
sibly be  as  good  as  what  was  shipped  from  the  factories,  and 
the  county  supervisor  was  forced  to  call  in  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce to  assist  her  in  convincing  them.  It  was  decided  that  a 
committee  of  grocerymen  should  be  asked  to  come  to  the  Cham- 
ber and  pass  judgment  on  the  standard  brands  of  tomatoes  sold 
in  the  town  and  on  the  Girls'  Canning  Club  product.  Two  dis- 
interested persons  selected  cans — four  different  brands — and  from 
a  pile  of  several  hundred  4-H  Brand  cans  they  selected  two.  The 
contents  of  these  cans  were  poured  into  six  glass  bowls,  each  bowl 
being  numbered.  When  they  were  set  before  the  grocers  for 
judgment  the  bowls  receiving  the  best  grade  held  Canning  Club 
products,  the  others  grading  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth.  This 
was  enough  to  arouse  interest  in  the  grocers  and  was,  with  a 
house-to-house  canvass  for  orders,  sufficient  to  bring  us  a  trade 
that  carried  every  one  of  our  county  cans  to  the  retail  merchant. 

Selling  Direct. — One  of  the  best  and  most  satisfactory  selling 
arrangements  is  to  be  made  with  institutions,  colleges,  and  hotels, 
and  our  advanced  girls  are  working  up  quite  a  trade  in  No.  10 
or  gallon  cans.  If  these  institutions  can  rely  upon  you  for  a 
steady  and  uniform  output  they  are  glad  to  be  in  touch  with  a 

1The  4-H  in  the  brand  is  a  Canning  Club  slogan,  signifying  the  de- 
velopment of  the  head,  heart,  hand,  and  health. 


304 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


producer  who  can  deliver  products  they  know  to  be  well  flavored, 
clean,  and  high  in  the  percentage  of  pulp  to  the  can. 

Bettie  Van  Tapscott  and  her  mother,  of  Alamance  County, 
did  some  excellent  work  in  this  line.  Bettie  says:  "We  filled 
last  year  an  order  of  beans  and  pears  for  Swain  Hall,  at  the 
University  of  North  Carolina,  and  when  that  was  delivered  I 
sent  Mr.  Tischler,  the  man  who  buys,  a  sample  of  my  tomatoes. 


FIG.   139. — A  North  Carolina  canning  club  at  work. 

He  immediately  ordered  100  dozen.  I  had  only  1003  cans,  so 
I  divided  the  order  with  a  neighbor  club  member.  Mr.  Tischler 
told  me  if  what  I  sent  him  proved  satisfactory  he  would  give  me 
another  order  for  this  year.  I  guess  it  did,  for  he  gave  me  an 
order  for  just  as  many  as  I  would  accept.  I  filled  it  and  sent  it 
to  him  yesterday,  and  he  wants  another  fifty  dozen  already.  You 
see,  it  is  no  trouble  to  find  a  market  if  you  go  at  it  right.  I 
correctly  mark,  label,  and  crate  all  products  I  send  off. ' ' 

Club  members  undertake  cooperative  work  more  readily  than 
will  their  parents.     One  enterprising  girl  informed  her  county 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  395 

agent  that  she  had  already  booked  orders  for  canned  products 
to  the  value  of  $168.  When  asked  if  she  could  fill  them  all,  she 
said,  "Oh,  no;  I  expect  to  have  a  good  many  more  orders  than 
this  when  all  my  letters  are  answered,  but  there  are  eight  of  us 
in  our  club  and  we  will  do  it  together."  (Fig.  139.) 

Two  sisters  of  Mecklenburg  County,  Margaret  and  May  Belle 
Brown,  who  have  been  club  members  since  the  work  first  started 
in  the  fall  of  1912,  have  sent  into  state  headquarters  reports 
of  each  year's  work.  They  have  kept  a  strict  account  of  the 
yield  and  of  the  expense  of  planting,  cultivating,  and  market- 
ing, and  in  five  years'  time  they  .have  recorded  a  total  profit  of 
$889.37.  This  does  well  indeed  when  the  first  year  they  cleared 
only  $45,  and  they  suffered  from  the  terrible  floods  of  July,  1916, 
that  laid  waste  so  many  fields  and  gardens  of  the  South. 

Profits  Made  by  Five  Girls  in  1916. — Here  are  five  girls 
whose  1916  marketing  records  are  good: 

Profit 
Miss  Elsie  Yarborough,  Wake  County $155.86 

Miss  Bettie  Van  Tapscott,  Alamance  County 137.20 

Miss  Ella  Maie  Kelly,  Richmond  County 110.58 

Miss  Emma  Reid,  Mecklenburg  County 109.71 

Miss  Hessie  Steele,  Richmond  County 101.45 

One  Family  Record. — The  family  record  of  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Watts  and  their  two  daughters,  Mary  and  Clyde,  of  Wake 
County,  is  interesting.  They  canned  in  the  summer  of  1916 : 

2000  cans   tomatoes    $200.00 

3000  cans  sweet  potatoes 300.00 

500  cans  string  beans   75.00 

200  cans  corn    30.00 

300  cans  butterbeans   60.00 

300  glasses  apple  jelly   45.00 

8  quarts  fig  pickle   3.20 

12  quarts  fig  preserves   9.60 

8  quarts  scuppernong  preserves 6.00 

8  quarts  tomato  pickle   4.00 

200  glasses  blackberry  jam 40.00 

6536  total  containers.  Estimated  value,    $772.80 

Estimated  cost,      193.20 


20  Profit,    $579.60 


306 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


A  Summary  Showing  Increase  of  Work  Done  by  Years 
Since  1912. — This  is  a  summary  of  Canning  Club  work  in  North 
Carolina  for  a  period  of  five  years,  1912-1916 : 


Year 

Number 
counties 
organized 

Number 
girls 
reporting 

Number 
cans  and 
jars 

Value  of 
products 

Total 
cost 

Total 
profits 

1912 

14 

229 

33,019 

$3,301 

$825 

$2476 

1913 

14 

235 

70000 

7,000 

1  750 

5250 

1914 

32 

814 

259,019 

35,361 

9425 

25935 

1915. 

37 

2386 

633,447 

104,241 

28,985 

75,256 

1916  

44 

3,453 

680,551 

117,816 

29,432 

88,383 

Totals.  .  . 

1,676,036 

$267,719 

$70,417 

$197,300 

DIAGRAM   SHOWING  GROWTH  OF  PROFITS  FOR  FIVE  YEARS 


1916. 


STANDARDS 

That  a  can  may  be  accepted  by  the  trade  and  that  a  home 
canner  may  stand  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  commercial 
canner,  standards  of  excellence  must  be  the  same.  First,  it 
would  be  well  to  select  a  standard  variety  of  fruit  or  vegetable 
to  can.  White  peaches  in  one  can  and  yellow  in  another,  under 
the  same  brand,  will  not  be  tolerated  by  the  trade  unless  marked 
white  peach  or  yellow  peach.  This  will  apply  to  the  shrivel  pea 
and  the  marrowfat — each  good  of  its  kind,  but  each  needing  a 
definite  distinguishing  name,  even  if  they  both  appear  under  the 
same  brand. 

The  brand  may  be  considered  the  family  name  which  the 
packer  adopts  for  his  products,  and  each  variety  he  puts  out  will 
have  a  given  name  which  will  distinguish  it  from  the  rest  of  the 
family.  If  a  canner  decides  to  put  string  beans  upon  the  market 
he  should  select  a  variety  which  has  practically  no  strings  and 
which  is  round  and  meaty  and  green'  in  color.  These  qualities 
are  demanded  by  the  trade  and  can  be  had  in  the  "Green  Pod 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  307 

Stringless  Bean."  This  bean,  even  when  grown  to  medium  size, 
is  still  juicy,  tender,  and  stringless,  and  has  proved  a  much  better 
canner  than  the  old  Valentine. 

Grading. — Beans  are  graded  as  to  size,  the  first  grading  being 
given  to  the  very  small  bean.  This  grade  is  called  in  commercial 
parlance  "Rat-tail."  The  next  grade  is  medium,  and  the  third 
the  broken  bean.  Each  of  these  is  excellent  in  its  way,  as  even  the 
broken  bean  is  gathered  while  it  is  tender  and  before  well-formed 
beans  are  to  be  found  in  the  pod. 

Tomatoes  should  be  red-ripe,  and  to  grade  as  extra  standard 
the  can  should  be  packed  full  of  either  whole  tomatoes  or  very 
large  pieces.  Sometimes  the  whole  fruit  is  too  large  to  put  in  the 
can  opening  and  must  be  cut.  One  green  or  light-colored  tomato 
will  ruin  your  grade. 

Peaches  should  be  graded  according  to  the  number  of  halves 
that  can  be  packed  in  a  can,  and  the  contents  of  a  can  should  be 
absolutely  uniform  in  size  and  color.  Some  of  the  California 
peaches  are  so  large  that  only  eight  halves  can  be  packed  in  a  No. 
3  can.  These,  of  course,  would  have  an  extra  fine  grading.  We 
cannot  hope  in  the  East  to  equal  the  size  of  the  California  fruit, 
but  our  flavor  seems  to  catch  the  trade,  and  many  of  the  Eastern 
peaches  grade  extremely  well  on  that  account. 

Berries  will  be  graded  as  to  size,  only  ripe  fruit  being  used. 

Soup  mixture,  chow-chow,  and  ketchup  must  each  be  of  a  uni- 
form consistency,  as  must  jams  and  preserves. 

The  cans,  jars,  and  bottles  should  be  selected  carefully  and 
the  number  of  ounces  that  they  contain  carefully  noted  on  the 
label.  Directions  as  to  weights  of  cans  and  quantity  of  contents 
will  be  found  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

The  Label. — The  label  for  a  can  should  be  carefully  chosen 
and  must  not  be  changed  except  under  unusual  circumstances. 
This  label  becomes  the  sign-patent  of  what  is  in  the  can,  and  any 
reputation  which  the  contents  of  the  can  may  make  is  recorded 
under  its  particular  label  in  the  purchaser's  mind.  To  change 
often  would  be  disastrous,  as  the  public  has  begun  to  look  for  what 
it  desires  under  a  particular  cover,  and  is  a  little  suspicious  that 
it  is  not  getting  quite  as  good  if  a  change  is  made  (Fig.  140). 


308  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FIG.   140. — Properly  labelled  jars. 


FIG.   141. — Standard  packs  in  tin. 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  309 

I  was  much  amused  at  an  old  grocer  who  had  been  buying 
from  the  Canning  Clubs  when  all  of  the  labels  bore  pictures  of  the 
fruit  or  vegetable  in  the  can.  The  new  labels  were  very  neat  and 
attractive,  but  were  without  pictures,  simply  the  name  of  the 
vegetable  being  printed  on  them.  "I  can't  buy  these,"  he  said. 
"I  would  have  to  take  out  my  spectacles  and  read  the  name  on 
those  cans  every  time  I  wanted  peaches  or  tomatoes  for  a  cus- 
tomer for  the  whole  lot  of  them. ' ' 

Consult  your  grocers  and  see  which  style  they  prefer.  Make 
your  selection  and  stick  to  it.  Every  label  should  bear  the  name 
and  address  of  the  canner,  and  should  have  printed  thereon  the 
weight  of  contents  of  can  (Fig.  141). 

When  striving  for  an  extra  trade  a  well-advertised  cleanliness 
of  methods  does  much  to  bring  a  high-class  patronage.  To  pub- 
lish that  all  canning  is  done  under  a  wire-screened  shed  or  in  a 
fly-proof  room,  that  the  workers  wear  immaculate  uniforms  and 
close-fitting  caps,  and  that  conditions  around  the  canner  are  sani- 
tary in  every  respect  is  a  great  incentive  to  the  hospital  or  hotel 
buyer. 

MARKETING  POLICY 

During  the  fall  and  winter  of  1916,  for  example,  prices  of 
canned  products  ran  riot,  and  all  preconceived  ideas  of  what  was 
a  good  marketing  policy  were  scattered  to  the  winds.  A  county 
agent  who  had  heretofore  found  it  wise  and  expedient  to  visit  the 
town  merchant  in  the  spring  and  secure  his  order  at  a  certain 
price  for  future  delivery  discovered  that  she  had  brought  trouble 
upon  herself  unless  she  had  designated  some  special  girls  to  fill 
those  orders  at  the  time  the  contract  was  made. 

Prices  commenced  to  climb  even  in  August,  and  by  October 
tomatoes  were  selling  at  $1.10-$1.25  a  dozen  to  the  retailer. 
When  the  agent  thought  it  time  to  fill  the  contracts  taken  at  $1 
she  found  many  of  her  girls  had  sold  at  $1.25  and  many 
more  were  holding  for  the  advanced  price  that  was  certain  to 
come.  She  had  not  put  the  matter  before  the  girls  in  the  spring  to 
find  if  they  would  take  the  contract,  believing  that  any  of  them 
would  be  glad  of  the  chance  to  sell  tomatoes  in  quantity  at  one 
dollar,  as  had  been  the  case  in  previous  years.  It  was  therefore 


310  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

a  distinct  shock  to  find  so  many  already  sold  out  or  arranging  for 
higher  prices.  It  was  at  the  last  the  club  spirit  that  saved  her, 
for  the  girls  clubbed  together  and  agreed  each  one  to  furnish  a 
part  of  the  orders  taken,  that  the  loss  might  not  fall  heavily  on 
any  one  of  them  and  that  the  business  honor  of  the  clubs  might 
be  saved. 

Business  plans  which  have  been  evolved  from  that  experience 
seem  to  be  sound.  The  county  supervisor  will  always  more  or  less 
act  as  a  go-between  from  club  girl  to  merchant,  because  the  mer- 
chant finds  it  very  convenient  to  telephone  her  an  order  or  to  see 
her  about  the  coming  output  when  she  is  in  town ;  but  after  the 
agent  finds  what  the  grocer  needs  she  is  wisely  selecting  certain 
girls  to  go  to  him,  make  their  own  bargains,  and  sign  any  con- 
tracts which  may  be  eventually  agreed  upon.  This  puts  the  re- 
sponsibility on  the  proper  person — the  producer — and  leaves  the 
county  agent  free  to  advise,  to  keep  her  eyes  open  for  possible 
chances,  to  see  that  standards  are  maintained,  and  to  look  to  the 
carrying  out  of  the  state 's  marketing  policy ;  namely,  not  selling 
to  the  merchant  and  also  to  the  consumer  in  any  town.  By  this 
policy  we  avoid  selling  to  the  grocer  and  also  to  his  customers, 
and  so  keep  the  good-will  of  both  (Fig.  142). 

It  was  a  little  difficult  to  instill  this  into  the  girl  at  first.  She 
could  not  see  why  it  was  not  proper  to  sell  all  the  products  pos- 
sible to  the  housewives  at  certain  advanced  prices,  and  what  she 
could  not  sell  in  this  way  later  to  sell  to  the  merchant  at  a  less 
price. 

Good  business  principles,  however,  are  part  of  her  training, 
and  she  sees  the  wisdom  of  the  position  when  she  and  her  fellow- 
club  members  are  producing  in  such  quantities  that  it  is  upon  the 
grocer  that  they  must  rely  to  take  the  whole  output.  He  pays 
promptly  a  satisfactory  price — even  if  less  than  the  consumer — 
and  the  difference  is  almost  made  up  when  the  delivery  of  all 
products  can  be  made  at  one  time  instead  of  in  small  lots. 

Prices. — Prices  are  governed  by  supply  and  demand.  In 
1915  from  85  cents  to  $1  per  dozen  was  a  good  price  to  receive 
for  No.  3  tomatoes.  In  1916-1917  tomatoes  in  No.  3  cans  sold 
as  high  as  $1.80  to  $2  per  dozen  to  the  retailer.  Nineteen  hundred 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  311 

and  fifteen  was  a  good  garden  year,  and  a  large  number  of  cans 
were  put  upon  the  market.  Nineteen  hundred  and  sixteen  was 
one  of  the  worst  trucking  years  the  country  had  ever  known.  Not 
only  did  the  long  drought  of  April  and  May  damage  the  early 
plants  until  we  could  expect  only  half  a  crop,  but  in  the  South 
the  July  floods  almost  wiped  out  what  remained.  The  supply 
of  canned  products  was  therefore  very  short  all  over  the  coun- 
try, and  the  reserve  supply  of  the  jobbers  and  grocers  had  been 
called  upon  to  such  an  extent  that  even  a  bumper  crop  in  1917 
would  scarcely  meet  the  demand  of  ordinary  circumstances.  As 
it  was,  war  conditions  made  an  extra  supply  necessary  and  put 
upon  the  home  the  responsibility  of  filling  every  available  glass 
jar  for  home  use  and  every  tin  can  for  market. 

"While  empty  tin  cans  were  high,  the  price  of  full  cans  was 
correspondingly  high,  and  there  appeared  to  be  no  chance  of  a 
canner  losing  out  in  the  market  if  his  pack  were  of  standard 
grade. 

In  North  Carolina  the  club  girls  have  found  it  at  times  not 
unprofitable  to  sell  to  the  jobber.  Indeed,  there  are  circumstances 
under  which  this  is  advisable.  If  a  supervisor  finds  herself  with 
a  large  output  in  a  county,  the  market  not  very  brisk,  and  the 
young  canners  quite  impatient  to  sell,  as  is  sometimes  the  case 
in  a  new  county,  a  jobber  who  will  agree  to  take  the  whole  output 
or  as  much  of  it  as  the  girls  will  agree  to  let  go  may  prove  himself 
a  friend  in  need.  The  price  is  not  much  below  the  retail  man's, 
and  the  short  length  of  time  it  takes  for  the  girls  to  reimburse 
themselves  gives  them  courage  and  determination  to  keep  on  at 
the  work  another  year.  In  some  cases  drop  orders  for  these  job- 
bers may  be  accepted ;  that  is,  a  jobber  will  buy  several  thousand 
cans  from  a  county,  asking  that  one  thousand  be  sent  to  John 
Doe,  of  Wilmington,  and  so  many  more  to  a  firm  in  Charlotte, 
and  so  on.  This  saves  the  jobber  the  extra  expense  of  receiving 
the  whole  shipment  himself  and  reshipping  to  his  customers. 

Principal  Money  Crops. — The  club  girls'  principal  money 
crops  are  tomatoes,  string  beans,  and  soup  mixture,  though  the 
demand  for  sweet  potatoes,  corn,  kraut,  peas,  berries,  peaches, 
preserves,  jams,  and  pickles  is  constantly  growing. 


312  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Five  years  ago  the  girl  found  it  difficult  to  get  her  products 
upon  the  market  without  much  hard  work.  To-day,  because  of 
her  fidelity  to  standards  and  her  willingness  to  make  good  any 
losses  to  the  merchant,  he  is  seeking  her  out  and  in  many  counties 
is  taking  every  4-H  Brand  can  that  is  put  upon  the  market.  In 
1916  the  canning  clubs  of  the  South  could  have  sold  many  times 
their  output,  and  they  are  now  looking  forward  to  a  more  than 
doubled  output,  feeling  that  they  have  an  assured  market  for  all 
they  can  produce,  and  a  great  duty  to  perform  in  producing 
everything  that  their  energy  and  determination  can  wrest  from 
the  ground. 

Shipping. — The  best  marketing  policy  is  to  build  up  a  trade  in 
your  own  community.  Certainly,  unless  your  canning  output 
is  large  enough  to  number  in  carload  lots,  it  would  not  be 
profitable  to  ship  to  any  great  distance.  Freight  rates  in  small 
lots  are  high  and  rather  unsatisfactory  as  to  length  of  time  in 
delivery.  In  North  Carolina  we  frequently  ship  from  one  county 
to  another  when  a  territory  has  produced  a  large  number  of  cans 
and  feels  that  its  market  might  not  be  sufficiently  well  estab- 
lished to  dispose  of  them  readily.  But  we  are  careful  to  ship  to 
the  nearest  county  having  a  market  for  more  than  it  produced, 
and  we  make  certain  that  the  shipment  goes  over  one  line  only. 

For  the  most  part,  cans  should  be  shipped  in  cases  containing 
two  dozen.  Look  at  the  regulation  tomato  box  in  any  grocery 
store  and  observe  the  size.  These  boxes  should  be  marked  on 
both  ends  by  a  label.  Just  the  same  label  which  you  paste  on 
your  can  will  answer  and  should  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
end  spaces.  This  will  enable  the  grocer  to  determine  easily  the 
contents  of  the  case. 

Last  year  I  found  some  grocers  and  many  institutions  willing 
to  have  their  products  in  tin  shipped  to  them  in  barrels.  The 
freight  rate  is  cheaper  on  barrels,  and  if  excelsior  is  used  in  the 
packing  to  prevent  scratching  of  labels,  six  dozen  No.  3  cans  can 
be  sent  very  well  in  this  receptacle. 

Shipment  of  products  in  glass  can  be  made  in  barrels  well 
packed  with  excelsior  and  arrive  with  practically  no  breakage. 
Pasteboard  cartons  are  good  for  small  packages  of  glass.  Glass  is 


THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF   CANNING 


313 


best  sent  by  express,  though  short-distance  freight  is  quite  safe  for 
glass  in  barrels.  The  parcels  post  may  be  used  to  advantage  for 
small  packages,  but  they  must  be  put  in  either  a  heavy  pasteboard 
carton  or  a  light  wooden  one  and  be  well  packed. 

The  Invoice. — When  an  order  is  shipped,  an  invoice  or  list 
of  what  is  included  in  the  shipment  should  be  sent  to  the  pur- 
chaser and  a  copy  filed  for  the  shipper's  information.  Never 


FIG.    142. — North  Carolina  county  agents  attending  canning  school  and  conference,   1915. 

neglect  this,  as  much  confusion  results  otherwise.  A  copy  of  the 
bill  of  lading  should  also  be  sent,  but  an  express  receipt  should 
be  kept  by  the  shipper. 

The  Payment. — Some  merchants  ask  that  shipment  be  made 
sight  draft  with  bill  of  lading  attached.  This  means  that  the  pur- 
chaser pays  before  taking  the  shipment  from  the  station.  Any 
banker  will  explain  this  shipment.  Other  merchants  prefer  the 
bill  sent  and  a  certain  length  of  time  in  which  to  pay  it.  Any 


314 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


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THE  BUSINESS  SIDE  OF  CANNING  315 

grocer  whose  rating  is  good  should  be  able  to  arrange  satisfactory 
means  of  payment  with  the  shipper.  In  five  years  of  doing 
business  with  the  merchant  the  North  Carolina  Canning  Clubs 
have  never  to  my  knowledge  lost  a  penny  through  nonpayment  of 
bills. 

In  trading  with  the  housewife  cash  payments  are  preferable, 
as  too  much  time  is  consumed  in  a  second  visit  to  collect  for  small 
orders. 

Records  and  Accounts. — Every  canner  should  keep  an  ac- 
count of  just  what  she  spends  in  her  yearly  venture.  A  com- 
plicated system  of  bookkeeping  is  not  necessary ;  but  to  deter- 
mine just  what  is  cleared  during  the  season  and  to  be  able  to 
know  whether  the  business  pays,  a  strict  record  of  what  is  paid 
out  in  money  and  time  must  be  kept.  The  following  things  should 
be  listed:  cost  of  ploughing,  fertilizer,  seed,  plants,  time  con- 
sumed in  planting,  cultivating,  harvesting  and  canning,  and  the 
cost  of  sugar,  cans,  jars,  labels,  crates,  etc.  The  cost  of  mar- 
keting must  also  be  included. 

A  record  should  also  be  kept  of  what  is  sold,  the  prices  re- 
ceived, and  when  delivered. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  briefly  your  idea  of  business  integrity. 

2.  What)  plan  of  marketing  do  you  believe  would  be  the  most  feasible  in 

your  community?     Why? 

3.  A  fundamental  demand  of  a  commercial  product  is  uniformity:   give  a 

brief  explanation  of  each  way  in  which  packs  should  be  uniform. 

4.  In  what  ways  may  the  label  influence  ease  of  marketing? 

5.  Explain  how  prices  are  governed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  McKiMMON,  JANE  S.,  "  Marketing  the  Canning  Club  Products,"  article 

in  Country  Gentleman,  issue  June  3,  1916.  Published  by  the  Curtis 
Publishing  -Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

2.  United    States    Department    of    Agriculture,    States    Relations    Service, 

"Canning  Club  Record  Book,"  B-511,  i.  Published  by  the  Office  of 
Extension  Work  in  the  South,  States  Relations  Service,  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER    XX 

TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 

THE  material  contained  in  this  volume  may  be  used  as  a  text- 
book in  the  hands  of  students  in  a  course  of  canning  and  pre- 
serving given  for  high  school,  normal  school,  and  college  students. 
Here  and  there  such  courses  are  being  given,  and  in  many  other 
institutions  the  subjects  of  canning  and  preserving  are  given  at- 
tention. This  book  will  also  prove  useful  as  a  reference  volume  in 
connection  with  extension  and  other  special  courses,  and  in  sum- 
mer school  courses  for  study  as  to  utilizing  fruits  and  vegetables 
cultivated  on  the  city  vacant  lots,  high  school  training  farms,  and 
school  gardens. 

Many  schools  and  colleges  are  adding  this  line  of  practical 
work,  in  raising  and  canning  fruits  and  vegetables,  to  their  Home 
Economics  courses.  It  had  been  found  that  the  best  results  can 
be  obtained  where  the  productive  side  of  the  question  is  considered 
first,  and  where  raising  the  products  precedes  their  utilization  in 
canning. 

The  subject  of  preservation  of  foods  has  been  only  barely 
touched  upon  in  most  of  the  Home  Economics  courses.  Little 
time  or  study  in  schools  has  been  given  this  very  important  phase 
of  food  conservation  until  very  recently.  Now  the  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  colleges  for  women  in  nearly  all  of  the  states  have 
included  in  their  regular  courses  work  in  canning,  or  they  give 
during  the  year  a  short  course,  which  includes  such  instruction. 
Some  of  these  courses  are  planned  for  Farmers '  Week,  Farmers ' 
Institutes,  and  other  special  short  courses.  Sometimes  courses 
are  given  in  the  state  institutions  for  women  and  girls  who  have 
won  the  highest  and  best  records  in  their  state  in  home  demonstra- 
tion work  and  canning  clubs.  While  -the  principles  presented 
should  cover  representative  phases  of  the  subject,  the  practical 
316 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  317 

work  done  will  naturally  be  determined  by  seasons.  Brief  or  a 
more  exhaustive  study  should  be  given,  according  to  the  age  and 
maturity  of  the  students.  It  is  understood  that  more  of  the  bac- 
teriology of  canning  will  be  given  to  advanced  students.  In 
planning  courses  the  teacher  should  plan  her  work  with  refer- 
ence to 

1.  Aim. 

2.  Subject-matter. 

3.  Methods. 

4.  Equipment. 

5.  Library. 

A  SUMMER  SHORT  COURSE 

For  a  two-week  summer  short  course  the  plan  outlined  below 
is  suggested  for  the  first  year's  work  in  canning.  Necessary  in- 
formation to  carry  on  such  a  course  may  be  gotten  from  the  text. 

Lesson          I.  Lecture — Principles  of  canning. 

Lesson        II.  Canning  tomatoes  or  berries  in  glass. 

Lesson  III.  Arranging  necessary  equipment  for  canning  in  tin.  Canning 
tomatoes  in  tin. 

Lesson  IV.  Utilizing  tomato  by-products:  (a)  Tomato  puree;  (6)  to- 
mato paste;  (c)  green  tomato  pickle;  (d)  tomato  ketchup. 

Lesson  V.  Plain  fruit  canning  in  tin — either  peaches,  figs,  or  pears — 
giving  recipe  for  putting  up  a  by-product  for  each  fruit 
used. 

Lesson       VI.  Fancy  packing  of  fruits  in  glass  for  exhibit  purposes. 

Lesson     VII.  Canning  beans  and  peas  in  tin. 

Lesson  VIII.  Fancy  packing  of  beans  and  carrots  in  glass  for  exhibit  pur- 
poses. 

Lesson       IX.  Canning  corn  in  tin;  canning  baby  beets  in  glass. 

Lesson        X.  Canning  sweet  Spanish  pimientos  whole,  in  glass  and  in  tin. 

Lesson  XL  Canning  soup  mixture  in  glass;  packing  of  vegetable  mace- 
doine  in  glass. 

Lesson  XII.  Arranging  an  attractive  exhibit  of  products  canned.  Instruc- 
tions on  judging  and  scoring.  Examination. 

The  second  year 's  course  should  include  preserving,  jelly  mak- 
ing, and  crystallizing  of  fruits,  as  given  in  the  following  outline. 
A  longer  course  in  a  single  season  for  more  mature  students  might 
include  both. 


318  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Lesson  I.  Lecture — General  principles  of  preserving. 

Lesson  II.  Preserved  watermelon  rind  or  citron  melon,  also  bottling 
fresh  fruit  juices. 

Lesson      III.  Finishing  watermelon  rind  preserve.     Starting  berry  shrub. 

Lesson  IV.  Preserved  peaches,  figs,  or  pears,  with  recipes  for  by-products, 
peach  marmalade,  fig  marmalade,  gingered  pear,  and  jams. 

Lesson         V.  Making  the  by-products  of  the  fruit  chosen  for  preserving. 

Lesson  VI.  Making  marmalades  and  conserves.  Grape-fruit,  kumquat, 
or  orange  marmalade;  fig,  plum,  or  rhubarb  conserve. 

Lesson  VII.  Fruit  pastes  or  butters:  apple,  apricot,  fig,  or  peach.  Drying 
fruits  and  vegetables. 

Lesson  VIII.  Jelly  making.     Begin  crystallizing  fruits. 

Lesson       IX.  Pickling.     Brining  vegetables. 

Lesson         X.  Curing  of  meats.     (Lecture.) 

Lesson       XI.  Making  sweet  pickles. 

Lesson     XII.  Making  relish,  chutney,  mangoes. 

Lesson  XIII.  Finish  crystallizing  fruits  and  packing  fruit  pastes. 

Lesson  XIV.  Arrange  an  attractive  exhibit  of  products  preserved.  In- 
structions on  judging  and  scoring. 

Lesson      XV.  Summary  of  work  done. 

It  is  impossible  to  suggest  a  course  of  study  which  might  be 
adopted  without  changes,  since  the  value  of  such  a  course  depends 
greatly  upon  the  choice  of  suitable  products,  and  those  which  the 
people  being  taught  most  desire  to  know  about.  The  locality  and 
the  season  of  the  year  will  cause  the  selection  of  material  to  vary 
considerably  in  different  sections.  However,  considerable  uni- 
formity can  exist  in  the  instructions  planned  for  an  organization 
in  a  section  or  an  entire  state,  depending  upon  a  range  of  latitude 
and  variation  in  climate. 

COUNTY  SHORT  COURSES 

A  state-wide  plan  for  all  county  short  courses  for  canning  club 
girls  has  helped  work  out  a  fine  scheme  of  standardizing  the 
special  club  products  made  during  the  four  years'  program  of 
work  throughout  the  state.  The  following  is  part  of  the  plans 
which  have  been  outlined  for  use  in  short  courses : 

First-year  Canning  Club  Members. — First  hour  each  day 
devoted  to  lecture  on  one  of  the  general  topics :  Sanitation,  Per- 
sonal Hygiene,  Principles  Underlying  the  Work. 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  319 

Two-  to  three-hour  period  daily  for  practical  work  in  canning 
tomato  products :  salad  tomatoes  in  thick  sauce  packed  in  glass, 
plain  canned  tomatoes  in  tin,  tomato  puree,  tomato  paste  in  tin 
and  glass,  green  tomato  pickle  in  glass,  tomato  ketchup  in  bottles, 
and  soup  mixture  in  glass. 

A  part  of  the  time  during  these  short  courses  is  devoted  to 
other  phases  of  the  club  work  which  are  emphasized  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year,  such  as  gardening,  poultry  work,  winter  gar- 
dening, sewing,  bread  making,  and  cooking  and  serving  of  club 
products. 

Second-year  Canning  Club  Members. — The  second-year 
members  spend  the  first  hour  in  assembly  hearing  the  general 
lecture.  The  practice  period  is  devoted  to  work  in  canning  and 
preserving  the  special  products  which  they  are  growing  on  their 
one-tenth  acre  plots;  soup  mixture  in  tin,  fancy  packing  of 
beans,  peaches,  or  figs  in  glass,  vegetable  macedoine  (band  pack- 
ing) in  glass,  baby  beets,  okra,  Dixie  relish. 

Third-year  Canning  Club  Members. — Dixie  relish,  canned 
pimientos,  chutney,  jelly,  and  preserves. 

Fourth-year  Members. —  (Canning  Club,  Home  Demonstra- 
tion Club,  and  Ladies  from  Town.} 

Jellies,  preserves,  marmalades,  jams,  and  conserves.  Pickling 
(brining  of  vegetables). 

The  short  course  outlined  above  is  based  upon  the  general 
plan  of  work  which  has  been  adopted  in  all  the  Southern  States. 
It  includes  a  program  of  work  for  four  consecutive  years.  A 
description  of  this  four-year  program  is  given  on  page  302.  In 
other  sections,  North  and  West,  there  are  similar  organizations  of 
girls  and  women  with  programs  which  give  gardening  and  can- 
ning work  a  large  place.  Such  work  provides  for  girls  and  young 
women  of  the  farms  a  useful  vocation,  stimulating  them  to  broader 
activities  and  more  useful  lives.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  indi- 


320 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


vidual,  such  work  gives  fine  opportunity  for  development  of  self- 
reliance,  initiative,  and  skill  in  special  lines.  This  skill  has  a 
direct  economic  value,  because  the  girls  possessing  it  are  enabled 
to  earn  money.  By  the  cooperative  community  effort  called  forth 
by  these  lines  of  work,  rural  life  is  made  more  attractive  for  men, 
women,  and  young  people  alike. 

AN  OUTLINED  PROGRAM  OF  WORK  FOR  GIRLS'  •  DEMONSTRATION  CLUBS  IN 

OKLAHOMA 

I.  Canning  Clubs 

First  year  .......  (  One-tenth    acre    tomatoes    or    home 

\     garden. 


A.  One-tenth  acre 
gardens: 


Second  year.  .  .  .  (  One-tenth  acre  tomatoes  and  one  other 
\     vegetable. 

f  One-  tenth   acre   tomatoes,   two  other 
Third  year  .....  I      vegetables    or    one-twentieth    acre 
I      vegetables,  one-twentieth  acre  per- 
\     ennials. 

{One-twentieth  acre  new  perennials, 
one-twentieth  acre  perennials  from 
third  year  or  home  garden. 

1.  Fall  gardens. 

2.  Catch  crops. 

3.  Cover  crops. 


(a)  Standardization  of  all  garden  and  orchard  products 
(6)   Economic  preservation  of  all  waste  products  on  farm. 

(c)  Exhibits  at  county  and  state  contests  held  in  the  fall. 

(d)  See  outlined  plan  of  Home  Demonstration  Work,  page  321. 

II.  Poultry  Clubs 

(  1.  General  utility  purposes. 
(a)  Selection  of  breeds  for  ...................  |  2.  Egg  production. 

[3.  Market. 
(6)   Marketing  of  poultry  and  poultry  products. 

(  Breeding. 

(c)  Care  of  flock  ............................  I  Housing. 

|  Treatment  of  diseases. 
[  Grading. 

(d)  Use  of  reports. 

(e)  Exhibit  ......................  .  .  /  Eggs. 

\  Pure-bred  birds  from  setting  of  eggs. 
(/)  See  outlined  plan  of  Home  Demonstration  Work,  page  321. 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  321 

AN  OUTLINE  PLAN  OF  HOME  DEMONSTRATION  WORK  FOR  WOMEN  IN 

OKLAHOMA 

f  Fireless  cooker  and  oil  stoves. 

1.  Labor-  and  time-saving  devices.  .  J  Fly-traps  and  sanitary  appliances. 

J  Ironing    boards,    wheel    trays,    tables 
[     with  rollers,  running  water,  etc. 

2.  Economic  production  of  wholesome  food  from  all  garden  and  poultry  club 

products. 

{1.  Sterile  utensils. 

2.  Care  and  use  of  milk. 

3.  Butter  making. 

4.  Marketing  of  dairy  products. 

4.  Sewing: 

(Cap. 
(a)  Making  of  club  uniform ...  \  Apron. 

I  Towel  and  holder. 
(6)  Selection  of  material  for  clothing, 
(c)  Making  of  simple  cotton  dress. 

{Begin  with  batters  and  end  with  yeast 
bread. 
Economic  use  of  stale  bread. 
Care  of  bread. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY   IN   FARMERS'   BULLETINS   FROM   U.    S.   DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURE   FOR    WOMEN    COUNTY    AGENTS    IN    OKLAHOMA 

For  February,  March,  and  April 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  183  Meat   on   the    Farm:    Butchering,    Curing,    and 

Keeping. 

Poultry  ( State  lesson  sheets ) . 

Gardening  ( State  lesson  sheets ) . 
642  Tomato  Growing  in  the  South. 
679  House  Flies. 

For  May,  June,  and  July 

634    (Year  Book)   Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  it  on  the  Farm. 
607  Farm  Kitchen  as  a  Workshop. 
541  Farm  Butter  Making. 
375  Care  of  Food  in  the  Home. 
444  Remedies  and  Preventives  against  Mosquitoes. 

For  August,  September,  and  October 
51  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

644  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice. 
478  How  to  Prevent  Typhoid  Fever. 
270  Modern  Conveniences  for  Farm  Home. 
646  Selection  of  Household  Equipment. 

132  Correlating  Agriculture  with  Public  School  Subjects  in  the  Southern 
States.    Study  one  Text-book  on  Foods. 
21 


322 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


GARDENING  AND   CANNING  IN   CITIES 

Such  organizations  as  Boards  of  Education  and  Civic  Asso- 
ciations have  conducted  gardening  and  canning  in  a  number  of 
cities.  In  the  canning  instructions  conected  with  the  vacant  lot 
gardens,  training  farm  plots,  and  school  gardens  in  cities  the 
fruit  and  vegetables  should  be  canned  as  they  mature.  Sometimes 
a  nearby  school  building  which  is  usually  closed  during  the  sum- 
mer months  has  available  a  well-equipped  domestic  science  labora- 
tory which  could  be  used  to  great  advantage  in  this  summer  work. 
If  such  a  place  is  not  available,  a  shady  spot  near  the  garden 


FIG.   143. — A  cultivated  city  vacant  lot  in  Philadelphia. 

may  be  selected  and  here  outdoor  equipment  set  up  for  the  can- 
ning work.    Only  a  limited  number  of  utensils  are  necessary. 

Vacant  Lot  Gardening. — The  vacant  lot  gardening  in  Phila- 
delphia is  typical  of  what  some  of  the  cities  are  doing  and  of  what 
all  should  do  (Fig.  145).  Many  property  owners  in  this  city  lend 
their  land  with  the  understanding  that  in  case  they  wish  to  sell, 
build,  or  use  the  land  the  gardeners  will  release  it  on  a  six  weeks ' 
notice.  The  work  is  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Vacant  Lot  Cultivation  Association.  Several  hundred  fam- 
ilies are  made  happier  and  brought  to  better  health  every  year 
because  of  this  opportunity  to  get  close  to  Mother  Nature.  Such 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  333 


324: 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


a  privilege  enables  many  people  to  provide  wholesome  food  and 
recreation  for  their  families  during  the  summer  months.  Often 
a  goodly  supply  of  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  is  grown  and 
stored  for  winter  use.  At  the  same  time  the  city  is  beautified  by 
growing  gardens  on  the  vacant  lots  (Fig.  143). 

What  is  not  used  in  the  homes  or  sold  fresh  might  easily  be 
canned,  or  dried,  stored,  and  sold  later  or  used  during  the  winter 
months. 


FIG.   145. — A  coSperative  neighborhood  garden  in  Philadelphia*,  Pa. 

School  gardens  (Fig.  144)  should  be  large  enough  to  produce 
a  supply  of  vegetables  for  the  home  table,  with  a  small  surplus 
to  sell  or  to  can.  In  some  country  schools  gardens  have  been  culti- 
vated by  the  children  and  the  vegetables  canned  for  use  during 
the  winter  in  hot  school  lunches. 

The  training  farm  work  in  Cleveland,  1910  to  1913,  may  be 
cited  to  show  what  city  school  gardens  will  accomplish.  There 
the  children  studied  the  canning  and  preserving  of  all  vegetables 
grown  in  their  gardens,  these  canning  lessons  being  given  in  the 
Domestic  Science  Department  of  the  Schools. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  work  has  been  the  exhibit  of  the 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 


325 


garden  products  and  canned  goods  (Figs.  147  and  148).  All  of 
the  products  exhibited  were  grown  and  put  up  by  the  children  in 
the  Willard  School  Farm  (Fig.  149). 

After  the  planting  season,  before  the  vegetables  mature,  there 
is  opportunity  to  bring  together  the  necessary  equipment  in  a 


FIG.   146.  —A  tomato  plot  in  Geauga  County,  Ohio. 

suitable  place.  The  building  of  homemade  canners  and  fly-traps 
may  be  taught  as  a  part  of  the  preparation  for  outdoor  canning. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  canning  should  first  be  taught 
through  the  use  of  the  material  most  easily  canned.  Some  of  the 
early  berries  and  fruits  are  easier  to  can  than  the  vegetables, 
and  lend  opportunity  for  practice  before  the  products  which  are 
more  difficult  to  can  come  into  bearing. 

CANNING  IN  HIGHER  INSTITUTIONS 

Normal  schools  have  already  recognized  the  value  of  giving 


326 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  327 


328 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  329 


FIG.   150. — Senior  class  at  Harrisonburg  Normal  School,  Virginia,  cultivating 
and  spraying  their  plants. 


FIG.  151. — Staking  and  tying  plants. 


330 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


their  students  practical  work  of  this  nature  so  that  later,  as  teach- 
ers, they  may  be  prepared  to  direct  these  activities  among  chil- 
dren successfully.  In  many  institutions  students  have  organized 
themselves  into  canning  clubs  which  they  have  conducted  for  the 
purpose  of  learning  how  to  carry  on  these  organizations  among 
children. 

The  following  series  of  illustrations  will  given  an  idea  of  what 
was  done  at  one  of  the  state  normal  schools  in  Virginia  (Figs. 
150,  151,  152,  153,  and  154).  A  one-half  acre  scholarship  plot 


FIG.    152. — Prize  winning  short  course  girls  pruning  tomato  plants 


was  given  to  the  senior  class.  They  were  to  plant,  spray,  culti- 
vate, stake,  and  prune  the  tomato  plants.  The  canning  club  girls 
who  won  the  state  short  course  scholarships  from  various  counties 
came  to  this  school  in  the  summer.  The  plot  furnished  oppor- 
tunity for  practical  instruction  in  the  garden.  When  the  stu- 
dents returned  to  school  in  the  fall  the  garden  was  in  bearing. 

The  district  agent  in  home  demonstration  work,  who  had  her 
headquarters  in  this  school,  gave  many  demonstrations  to  the 
senior  students  in  the  utilization  of  this  vegetable  in  various 
ways.  Plain  canned  tomatoes,  whole  salad  tomatoes  in  thick 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 


331 


sauce,  tomato  puree,  tomato  paste,  tomato  ketchup,  and  green  to- 
mato pickles  were  the  principal  products  made.    The  students  be- 


FIG.   153. — Senior  class  receiving  instructions  in  canning. 


FIG.   154. — Students'  display  of  canning  products  from  the  Scholarship  Plot. 

came  skilled  in  canning  and  gave  demonstrations  for  the  benefit 
of  other  members  of  the  school.     Some  of  these  products  were 


332  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


FIG.  155.— Tomato  plot  cultivated  by  senior  class  at  Hattiesburg  Normal  School,  Mississippi. 


PI  an  of  building  used  for  canning  at  State  Industrial  College,  Denton,  Texas. 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 


333 


used  in  the  school  dining  hall  and  some  were  sold.  The  proceeds 
are  to  be  turned  each  year  into  a  permanent  scholarship  fund  for 
canning  club  girls  of  the  state. 

The  training  given  in  the  state  normal  school  has  enabled 
teachers  to  give  fine  assistance  to  the  county  agent  in  organizing 
canning  clubs  (Fig.  155).  Colleges  are  also  giving  courses  in 
canning;  a  notable  example  is  the  State  Industrial  College  at 
Denton,  Texas,  which  has  provided  a  canning  laboratory  build- 
ing (Fig.  156). 


SUGGESTED  LIST  OF  SUPPLIES  FOB  A  SMALL  LABORATORY 

Brushes,  etc.: 

1       Fan-shaped  sink  brush 
1/2  Dozen  brushes  for  test-tubes 


%  Dozen  brushes  for  small  cyl- 
inders 
1/2  Dozen  brushes,  bristle 


Choppers,  Slicers,  etc. : 
1  No.  3  food  chopper 

1  Sterling  slicer 
Cutlery,  etc.: 

2  Silver-plated  dessert  knives 

1  Rubber-tipped  sink  shovel 
y2  Dozen    spoons,    tea,    heavy 

plated 

2  Spatulas,       steel,       nickel- 

plated,  6-inch  blade 


Crockery,  etc. : 

1       Dozen  plates, 
inch,  plain 


dinner,      9- 


Encumel  Boilers,  Pans,  Cups,  Trays,  etc.: 
I       Tray,  white  enamel,  oval 
3       Bowls,  white  enamel,  four- 
quart 
3       Pans,  enamelled,  sauce,  No. 

24 
3       Pans,       enamelled,       stew, 

Nesco  six-quart 
6       Pans,       enamelled,       milk, 

round,  six-quart 
1       Pan,  dish,  tin,  large  size 


1  Hand  bottle  capping  machine 
1  Hand  fruit  press 

1       Sure-cut  can  opener 
1/2  Dozen  spoons,  table,   heavy 

plated  ( set  of  6 ) 
i/2  Dozen    forks,    table,    heavy 

plated   (set  of  6) 
%  Dozen    knives,    paring, 

three-inch  blade 

1       Dozen  dishes,     side,     plain 

white 

1/2  Dozen  crocks,  glazed  stone, 
1 -gallon,  with  covers 

1  Tureen,  oval,  enamelled, 
thirteen-quart  (used  for 
hot- water  bath  processor) 

y2  Dozen  cups,  enamelled 
1       Cup,  tin,  one-quart 

i/>  Dozen  pans,  enamelled, 
milk,  oval 

i/>  Dozen  bowls,  enamelled, 
one-quart 

y2  Dozen  bowls,  enamelled, 
two-quart 


334 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Funnels,  Jar  Fillers,  etc.: 

1  Patent  funnel,  pint  size,  cop- 
per, nickel  lined 

Glass  Containers  and  Measures: 

1  Gross  No.  12  champagne 

shaped    catsup    bottles, 

roil  top  and  crimp  cap 

3       Glass  measuring  cups,  % 

pint,  graduated 
100       Processing  clamps 

%  Dozen  graduates,       glass, 

cone  shape,  eight-ounce 

%  Dozen  cups,  feeding,  glass 

2  Dozen  glasses,  jelly 
1       Dozen  jars,  preserve, 

Mason's   standard   one- 
pint 
1       Dozen  jars,  Mason's 

Atlas    one-quart,    wide 
mouth 

Miscellaneous : 

2%  Yards  oilcloth,  white 
6       Yards  denim,       upholster- 
er's dark  blue 
10       Yards  cheesecloth, 

bleached,  36  inches  wide 

Scientific  Apparatus,  Scales,  and  Supplies: 

1  Scales,  double  beam,  porce- 

lain plate,  10-inch  square, 
with  brass  scoop 

2  Confectioner's         thermom- 

eters,   range    80    degrees 
to  350  degrees   F. 

3  Chemical  thermometers, 

scale  range  110  degrees  C. 

3       Chemical  thermometers, 

scale  range  230  degrees  F. 
14  Dozen  salt  per  cent  scale,  0 
per  cent  to  100  per  cent 

1  Sugar  hydrometer,  Balling 
scale  0  degree  to  70  de- 
grees, %  degree  gradation 


1  Aluminum  jar  filler 


Dozen  jars,   Mason's 

Atlas      one-pint,     wide 

mouth 
Dozen  No.  5004   10-ounce 

vase-shape     jar,     with 

hermetic  cap 
Dozen  No.  5042   12-ounce 

glass  top,  screw  rim 
Dozen  No.     209  10-ouncc 

tumbler-shape  jar,  with 

hermetic  cap 
Dozen  No.      184     4-ounce 

jar,  with  hermetic  cap 
Gross    thick    red    or    gray 
rubber  jar  rings 


5       Yards  flannel,  white 
1       Dozen  yards  towelling,  17- 
inch  linen 

1        Dozen    rolls    paper     hand 
towelling 

2  Sugar  hydrometers,  Brix 
scale  range,  0  degrees  to 
30  degrees,  graduated  ya 
degree 

2  Sugar  hydrometers,  Brix 
scale,  range  30  degrees  to 
60  degrees,  graduated  % 
degree 

2  250  c.c.  cylinders,  for  float- 
ing spindles 

1  Small  steam  pressure  proc- 
essor 

1  Small  "  water-seal "  can- 
ner 

1  Wash  boiler  to  be  used  for 
a  "  hot-water  "  canner 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 


335 


Sieves,  Strainers,  Ladles,  etc.: 
1  Sanitary  sink  basket 
1  No.  80  puree  sieve 

1  Oblong  wire  draining  tray  for 

processing  boiler 

2  Aluminum  ladle,  oval  bowl  for 

pouring,  hook  on  middle  of 
handle 


Wooden  Ware,  etc.  : 

2       Flat  wooden  spoons 
1        Small    potato    masher 

crushing  fruits 
1        Jar,  slop,  papier-mache 


for 


2  Perforated  aluminum  skim- 
mers 

1  Large  aluminum  strainer 

1  Wire  frying  basket  with  bail 
for  blanching  vegetables 

1  Puree  seive 

]   Colander 


%  Dozen  cane  packing  paddles 
y2  Dozen  cane  syrup  paddles 
2       Wooden  paddles  for  testing 

jelly 

2       Jelly  racks 


The  above  list  is  intended  for  experimental  work;  for  in- 
dividual class  work  the  list  would  need  to  be  supplemented.    Can- 


FIG.   157. — A  North  Carolina  exhibit  of  first-year  products. 


336 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


ning  instruction  can  be  given  in  an  ordinary  cooking  laboratory. 
One  does  not  need  a  special  room,  although,  as  the  work  de- 
velops, a  room  set  aside  as  "  A  Canning  Laboratory "  will  tend 
to  dignify  the  work  and  simplify  the  task  of  the  instructor.  A 
lecture  room  with  a  raised  platform  wJiere  demonstrations  and 
lantern  slide  lectures  could  be  given  for  the  benefit  of  all  students 
would  be  most  useful.  A  list  of  catalogues  and  samples  from 
commercial  firms  should  be  secured  and  students  should  famil- 
iarize themselves  with  the  sources  of  supplies  (see  Appendix, 
p.  346). 


FIG.  158. — A  parish  exhibit  in  Louisiana. 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES 


337 


Exhibits.  —  Numerous  benefits  may  be  derived  from  exhibiting 
the  finished  products  of  canning  and  preserving  work  in  schools 
and  clubs.  A  "harvest  home"  in  the  school,  a  community  fair,  a 
county  or  state  fair  'attracts  attention  to  what  has  been  accom- 
plished and  interests  a  greater  number  of  people.  One  of  the 
most  important  results  of  the  exhibit  is  its  use  as  a  means  of  estab- 
lishing standards  of  quality.  It  impresses  forcibly  the  great 
necessity  for  uniform  products.  Uniform  containers  for  the 
products  improve  the  appearance  of  the  whole  exhibit  (Figs.  157 
and  158). 


FIG.   159. — A  miniature  exhibit  suggested  as  a  plan  for  a  fair. 

Figure  159  shows  a  miniature  exhibit  suggested  as  a  plan  for 
a  state  fair  booth.  Each  small  pyramid,  which  is  covered  with 
dark  green,  is  to  represent  the  separate  county  or  parish  exhibit. 
The  jars  for  each  stand  are  usually  selected  from  the  best  ones 
shown  at  the  community  or  county  fairs,  and  should  represent 
the  best  work  done  in  that  county.  The  larger  frame  in  the 
center  is  for  special  products  which  have  been  entered  for  indi- 
vidual awards. 

This  plan  of  arrangement  by  counties  simplifies  judging  and 
makes  possible  a  comparison  of  work  done  by  the  different  coun- 
ties at  a  glance.  Standardized  special  products  from  the  various 
22 


338 


SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


Fro.   160. — A  carefully  planned  exhibit. 

counties  are  assembled  together,  and  the  color  scheme  of  the  whole 
display  is  very  effective.  The  center  frame  is  supposed  to  repre- 
sent a  glass  jar  in  shape.  It  is  painted  white,  with  a  gilt  band 
painted  around  the  top  to  represent  a  lacquered  jar  cap.  The 
white  wooden  frame  is  lined  inside  with  white  cheesecloth,  and 
if  a  strong  light  is  placed  behind  this  cloth  in  the  center  it  will 
shine  through  the  clear  liquid  in  the  jars  and  make  the  products 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  339 

show  up  brighter  and  to  much  better  advantage.  This  is  an  espe- 
cially fine  arrangement  to  show  off  effectively  clear  jellies,  pre- 
serves, marmalades,  and  fruit  juices.  By  placing  products  of  one 
kind  only  on  each  shelf  all  around  the  frame  an  effective  combi- 
nation of  bands  of  color  can  be  obtained. 

When  exhibits  are  carefully  planned  and  arranged  it  affords 
great  pleasure  to  all  who  see  them,  and  renders  much  easier  the 
work  of  those  who  do  the  judging  and  place  the  blue  ribbons 
(Fig.  160). 

Judging  the  exhibits,  if  well  performed,  serves  as  a  means  of 
establishing  standards  of  quality  that  make  for  excellence.  It 


FIG.   161. — Judging  canned  tomatoes  and  beans. 

emphasizes  the  importance  of  careful  work,  and  of  uniform  pack- 
ing in  standard  containers  and  packages. 

Score  Cards. — Such  a  card  lists  all  the  essential  characteris- 
tics of  a  certain  kind  of  product  and  assigns  percentage  numbers 
on  a  scale  of  a  hundred;  the  more  important  items  are  given 
larger  numbers,  the  less  important  items  are  given  smaller  num- 
bers, and  the  sum  of  the  numbers  is  made  100.  A  product  is  ex- 
amined and  compared  by  the  judge  with  an  ideal  or  perfect 
product;  the  ideal  product  would  be  scored  100;  the  product 
being  judged  will  be  discredited  one  or  more  points  under  the 
various  items,  and  the  score  allowed  it  will  be  the  sum  of  these 
discredits  taken  from  the  perfect  score  of  100  (Fig.  161). 

The  use  of  the  score  card  has  come  to  be  common  in  judging 
such  materials,  and  such  cards  help  greatly  to  emphasize  the 
essential  points. 


340  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

GENERAL   SCORE  CARD  FOR  CANNED  FRUITS   AND  VEGETABLES 

Appearance Color    15 

Clearness   10  25 

Texture    10 

Flavor    20 

Uniformity Ripeness    10 

Appropriate  size    5  15 

Pack    (arrangement  in  glass  or  weight  in  tin) 15 

Container Label    5 

Neatness    5 

Appropriate  package  ...      5  15 

Total    .  100 


FIG.  162. — This  cow  has  proved  to  be  a  wonderful  prize  for  this  Tennessee  girl. 

Every  one  who  sees  such  an  exhibit  and  hears  the  public 
judging  will  go  away  with  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the" 
exhibit  and  be  stimulated  with  a  greater  desire  for  improvement 
through  better  methods  of  work. 

Somewhat  different  scores  are  used  for  judging  jelly,  pre- 
serves, and  relishes,  and  the  following  are  only  suggestive  scores 
which  will  aid  the  judges  and  exhibitors  by  calling  attention  to 
the  essential  points  that  make  for  high  standards : 


TEACHING?  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  341 


FIG.  163. — A  gardening  set  consisting  of  a  kneeling  pad  and  an  apron  for  tools. 


342  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Score  Card  for  Jelly: 

Appearance Color  10 

Clearness  10 

Crystals  ( lack  of ) . .  5  25 

Consistency     40 

Flavor    20 

Container Label  5 

Neatness  5 

Appropriate  size  5  15 

Total   100 

The  pronounced  yet  natural  color  of  the  fruit  is  most  desir- 
able. Natural  fruit  flavors  and  colors  are  much  more  artistic 
than  artificially  colored  and  flavored  fancy  jellies.  Clear,  spar- 
kling, transparent  jelly  with  no  signs  of  crystallization  make  the 
product  attractive  in  appearance.  The  texture  is  tender  and  cuts 
easily.  It  breaks  with  distinct  cleavage,  and  the  angles  retain 
shape.  The  glasses  should  be  uniform  in  shape  and  of  appro 
priate  size,  practical  for  use  in  the  average  home.  The  clean 
covers  should  fit  tightly,  and  a  small,  neat  label  should  be  properly 
placed. 

Score  Card  for  Preserves  : 

Fruit..  .  .Appearance  (color  and  clearness)  10 

Uniformity  of  pieces 10 

Pack    (arrangement)    10 

Flavor   15 

Texture    10 

Container    5  GO 

Syrup.  .  .Clearness  and  color 10 

Flavor    15 

Consistency   10 

Proportion  of  juice 5  40 

Total    100 

The  preserved  product  should  retain  as  nearly  as  possible 
original  shape,  color,  and  flavor  of  the  fresh  fruit.  Too  often  the 
fruit  flavor  is  destroyed  by  use  of  too  much  sugar.  Preserved 
fruits  should  be  plump  and  firm,  yet  tender  and  transparent. 
The  pieces  should  be  of  uniform  size  and  arranged  in  the  jar 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  343 

with  reference  to  symmetry  and  best  use  of  the  space  within  the 
container.  About  one-fourth  as  much  syrup  as  fruit  is  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  syrup  to  fruit  in  a  jar. 

Score  Card  for  Relishes: 

General  appearance   (color  and  clearness) 15 

Choice  and  proportion  of  materials 10 

Size  and  uniformity  of  pieces 15 

Attractiveness  of  pack,  garnish,  etc 10 

Flavor    25 

Texture  of  material   20 

Container    5 

Total    100 

The  fresh,  crisp  texture  is  usually  preferable  in  relishes. 
Pieces  should  be  small,  but  of  uniform  size ;  attractive  packing  and 
placing  the  garnish  should  be  considered.  Usually  for  relishes  a 
narrow  strip  of  sweet  red  pepper,  a  small  whole  hot  pepper,  and  a 
snip  of  some  spice  are  placed  on  each  seam  of  the  jar.  The  label 
is  placed  midway  between  these  narrow  strips  and  one-fourth  inch 
from  the  bottom  of  the  jar. 

Suggestions  for  Judging. — For  judging  vegetable  and  fruit 
pickles  the  general  score  card  may  be  used.  Those  who  exhibit 
should  be  familiar  with  the  score  cards  and  know  what  points 
will  be  considered  in  judging  and  understand  why  products  do 
or  do  not  win  the  blue  ribbons.  When  the  premium  or  highest 
award  is  not  obtained  the  persons  competing  for  it  should  know 
how  they  can  improve. 

Prizes. — The  awarding  of  prizes  should  be  most  carefully 
planned,  since  more  harm  than  good  may  be  done  if  awards  are 
not  fairly  made.  Open  competition  offers  stimulus  to  many,  and 
larger  numbers  strive  to  attain  the  mark  of  the  goal.  Money 
prizes  are  not  always  advisable  rewards  to  offer,  unless  in  the 
form  of  bank  deposits.  Such  deposits  often  establish  a  basis  for 
the  beginning  of  a  savings  account.  Prizes  to  be  given  in  city 
and  country  are  naturally  of  different  types  (Fig.  162). 


344  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Appropriate  prizes  will  tend  to  create  a  greater  interest  in 
country  life.  Many  such  prizes  have  been  the  starting  point  for 
much  improvement  and  development  about  the  home,  especially 
where  the  prize  continues  to  grow  and  proves  a  good  investment 
for  the  time  spent  on  it.  Funds  from  prizes  and  especially,  of 
course,  from  the  sale  of  garden  and  canned  products,  have  made 
possible  further  education  for  many  Canning  Club  girls. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  CRESWELL,  MARY  E.,  Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture,  "  Girls'  and 

Boys'  Club  Work— A  Manual  for  Rural  Teachers,"  Bulletin  101, 
February,  1916.  Published  by  the  State  College  of  Agriculture, 
Athens,  Ga. 

2.  CRISTIE,  GEO.  I.,  "  Educational  Contests  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Eco- 

nomics," Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  255,  Office  of  Experiment  Station, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

3.  DOWDLE,  Miss  Lois,  and  WOOD,  MRS.  BESSIE  STANLEY,  Georgia  State 

College  of  Agriculture,  "  Girls'  Club  Work  in  Georgia,"  1916.  Pub- 
lished by  the  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Athens,  Ga. 


4.  Lippincott's  Farm  Manuals,  1914.     Published  by  the  J.  B.  Lippincott 

Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

5.  McKiMMON,  JANE  S.,  "  Marketing  the  Canning  Club  Products,"  article 

in  the  Country  Gentleman,  issued  June  3,  1916.  Published  by  the 
Curtis  Publishing  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

6.  NORTON,  J.   B.   J.,   "  Exhibiting,   Classifying,   and   Judging  Homemade 

Products,"  Hayettsville,  Md.     25  cents. 

7.  REESE,    MADGE   J.,   "Judging    Household    Exhibits,"    September,    1916. 

Published,  by  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  Auburn,  Ala. 

8.  United    States   Department    of    Agriculture,    States    Relations    Service, 

Office  of  Extension  Work  in  the  South,  B-511-i,  "Canning  Club 
Record  Book."  Published  by  the  Office  of  Extension  Work  in  the 
South,  States  Relations  Service,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

9.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  A-82,   "Canning  Club   and 

Home  Demonstration  Work"  (Organization  Circular).  Published 
by  the  Office  of  Extension  Work  in  the  South,  States  Relations  Service, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


TEACHING  CANNING  AND  RELATED  ACTIVITIES  345 

10.  United    States   Department    of   Agriculture,    States    Relations    Service, 

bulletins  published  by  the  Office  of  Investigations  on  Farmers'  Insti- 
tutes and  Movable  Schools.  Published  by  the  States  Relations 
Service,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

11.  Yearly    Reports,    Home    Gardening    Association,    Sixth    and    St.    Clair 

Streets,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

12.  Yearly  Reports,  Philadelphia  Vacant  Lot  Cultivation  Association,  2211 

Land  Title  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


APPENDIX 


ADDRESS  LIST  OF  STATE  INSTITUTIONS  FROM  WHICH    AGRICULTURAL 
EXTENSION  WORK  UNDER  THE  SMITH-LEVER  ACT  IS  DIRECTED 

For  information  concerning  club  work  in  any  state  write  to  the  Director 
of  Extension  at  the  State  College  of  Agriculture. 


STATE 


ADDRESS 


Alabama 
Arizona 


Arkansas  . 
California 

Colorado    . 


Connecticut 
Delaware  . . 
Florida  . 


Georgia 
Idaho  . . 
Illinois 

Indiana 
Iowa   . 


Kansas  . . 
Kentucky 

Louisiana 
Maine  . .  . 
Maryland 


Massachusetts 

Michigan    

346 


Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  Auburn. 

College   of   Agriculture,    University   of   Arizona, 

Tucson. 

Extension  Director,  Old  State  House,  Little  Rock. 
College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  California, 

Berkeley. 

State  Agricultural  College  of  Colorado,  Fort  Col- 
lins. 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  Storrs. 
Delaware  College,  Newark. 
College   of   Agriculture,    University  of    Florida, 

Gainesville. 

Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture}  Athens. 
Extension  Director,  the  State  House,  Boise. 
College    of   Agriculture,    University    of   Illinois, 

Urbana. 

Purdue  University,  Lafayette. 
Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic 

Arts,  Ames. 

Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan. 
College    of    Agriculture,    The    State    University, 

Lexington. 
Louisiana  State  University  and  Agricultural  and 

Mechanical  College,  Baton  Rouge. 
College    of    Agriculture,    University    of    Maine, 

Orono. 
Maryland  State  College  of  Agriculture,  College 

Park. 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Amherst. 
Michigan  Agricultural  College,  East  Lansing. 


APPENDIX 


347 


STATE 


ADDRESS 


Minnesota 

Mississippi   

Missouri    

Montana   

Nebraska   

Nevada    

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 


New  York 

North    Carolina .  . 


North  Dakota. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma  . 


Oregon 

Pennsylvania    .... 

Rhode  Island 

South   Carolina.  . 


South   Dakota .  . 
Tennessee    . 


Texas 


Utah    

Vermont    . 


Virginia  .  .  . 
Washington 


College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Minnesota, 

University  Farm,  St.  Paul. 
Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 

Agricultural  College. 
College   of  Agriculture,  University  of  Missouri, 

Columbia. 

Montana  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts,  Bozeman. 
College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Nebraska, 

Lincoln. 
College   of    Agriculture,    University    of   Nevada, 

Reno. 
New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  the 

Mechanic  Arts,  Durham. 
Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick. 
New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic 

Arts,  State  College. 

New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca. 
North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts,  West  Raleigh. 
North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural 

College. 
College   of   Agriculture,    Ohio    State   University, 

Columbus. 
Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 

Stillwater. 

Oregon  State  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College. 
Rhode  Island  State  College,  Kingston. 
Clemson  Agricultural  College  of  South  Carolina, 

Clemson  College. 

South  Dakota  State  College,  Brookings. 
College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Tennessee, 

Knoxville. 
Agricultural   and  Mechanical   College  of  Texas, 

College  Station. 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  Logan. 
University   of  Vermont  and   State  Agricultural 

College,  Burlington. 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  Blacksburg. 
State  College  of  Washington,  Pullman. 


348  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 


STATE 


ADDRESS 


West    Virginia , 


Wisconsin 


Wyoming 


College  of  Agriculture,  \Vest  Virginia  University, 

Morgantown. 
College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Wisconsin, 

Madison. 
College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Wyoming, 

Laramie. 


ADDRESS  LIST  OF  FIRMS  FURNISHING  SUPPLIES  FOR  CANNING 
AND  PRESERVING 


Canning  Outfits  and  Supplies 

American  Can  Company. Atlanta,  Georgia Home  canners,  cans,  and 

labels. 

Baehr,  Mrs.  Hermine ....  Baltimore,  Maryland ....  Tray  for  boiler  (3  in  1 ) . 
29  Garrison  Lane. 

E.  F.  Kirwan  &  Company.Baltimore,  Maryland  .  . .  Hot-water  bath  canner. 

Eubanks,  Geo.  L Union  City,  Georgia.  .  .  .Hot- water  canners,  cans. 

Farming     Canning     Ma- 
chine Company Meridian,    Mississippi . . .  Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Favorite    Manufacturing 

Company    Tampa,   Florida jWater-seal  canner. 

Griffith  &  Turner  Co Baltimore,  Maryland   .  . .  Steam  canners. 

205-207  N.  Paca  St. 

Hamp  Williams  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  .Home  canners. 

Home   Canner   Manufac- 
turing Company   Hickory,  North  Carolina. Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Henninger  &  Ayes  Manu- 
facturing Company  . . .  Portland,  Oregon Steam  canners. 

Monarch    Manufacturing 

Company    Chattanooga,  Tennessee. .  Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Modern  Canner  Company.Chattanooga,  Tennessee. .  Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Northwestern    Steel    and 

Iron  Works   Eau  Claire,  Wisconsin. .  .Steam  canners. 

Phillips  &  Buttorff  Manu- 
facturing Company  .  .  .Nashville,  Tennessee    .  .  .Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Pressure     Cooker     Com- 
pany     Denver,  Colorado Aluminum  steam  canners 

and  cookers. 

Raney  Canner  Company. .  Chattanooga,  Tennessee. .  Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Royal  Home  Cariner  Com- 
pany    Chattanooga,  Tennessee. .  Hot- water  bath  canner. 


APPENDIX  349 

Southern     Evaporator 

Company    Chattanooga,  Tennessee. .  Hot-water  bath  canner. 

Sprague  Canning  Machin- 
ery Company   Chicago  Illinois Steam  canners. 

222  North  Wabash  Ave. 

Stahl,  F.  S Quincy,  Illinois Hot- water  bath  canner. 

The  Candy  Canner  Com- 
pany     Overton,  Texas Hot- water  bath  canner. 

Utility  Company   Hickory,  North  Carolina. Hot- water  canner. 

West  Manufacturing 

Company    Philadelphia,  Pa "  Carbery  Water-seal 

Canner." 

Mechanical  Meals  and  Sealers  for  Tin  and  Glass 

American   Metal   Cap 

Company Brooklyn,  New  York.  .  .  .Metal  bottle  caps. 

Summit   St.   and  Com- 
mercial Wharf. 

Bowers    Can    Seal    Com- 
pany     Boston,  Massachusetts. .  .Automatic     can     sealers, 

146    Summer    St.  tin  cans. 

Burpee  &  Letson,  Ltd. .  .  .  South  Bellingham,  Wash.Automatic     can     sealers, 

tin  cans. 

Crown     Cork     and     Seal 

Company Baltimore,    Chicago,    San 

Francisco,     and     other 

cities    Metal     bottle     caps     and 

sealers. 

Henninger  &  Ayes  Manu- 
facturing Company  ...Portland,  Oregon  Automatic     can     sealers, 

tin  cans. 

New  Process   Cork  Com- 
pany     Hoboken,  New  Jersey  . .  .Metal  bottle  caps. 

15th  and  Garden  Sts. 

The  Enterprise  Manufac- 
turing Co.  of  Pa Philadelphia,  Pa Bottle        cappers  —  from 

three      inches      to      14 
inches. 
Steamers 

Wilmot,  Castle  &  Co Rochester,  New  York.  .  .  .Steamers. 


350  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Heating  Devices 

Manning,  Bowman  &  Co..Meriden,  Connecticut  . .  .Alcoholite  stoves. 
Glove    Gas    Light    Com- 
pany     Boston,  Massachusetts  . .  Kerosene  gas  stoves. 

W.  J.  Baker  Company. .  .Newport,  Kentucky Gates  folding  camp  stove, 

gasoline  stove. 

Tin   Cans,   Glass  Jars,  Earthenware  Jars,  Bottles,   and  Rubber  Rings 

Acme  Glass  Company.  ...Glean,  New  York 8-  and   10-ouiace  ketchup 

bottles. 

American  Can  Company..  Baltimore,  Maryland  ...Tin  cans. 
Philadelphia,  Penna. 
New  York  City. 
Chicago,  Illinois. 
Atlanta,  Georgia. 

Ball  Brothers  Glass  Man- 
ufacturing Company  .  .Muncie,  Indiana   Mason  and  glass-top  jars. 

Boston  Woven  Hose  and 

Rubber  Company Boston,  Massachusetts  .  .Rubber  rings. 

Chesapeake    Glass    Com- 
pany     Baltimore,  Maryland   .  .  .Glass  jars. 

Continental     Can     Com- 
pany   Chicago,  Illinois    Tin  cans. 

Hazel-Atlas    Glass    Com- 
pany     , Wheeling,  West  Virginia.  Fruit  jars  and  tumblers. 

Hemingray     Glass    Com- 
pany   Covington,  Kentucky   .  .  .Glass  jars. 

Kerr    Glass   Manufactur- 
ing Company Sand  Springs,  Oklahoma. Economy  jars. 

Marion  Flint  Glass  Com- 
pany   Marion,  Indiana   

Revson,  Frank Atlanta,  Georgia Bottles. 

Robins,  A.  K.,  &  Co Baltimore,  Maryland   . .  .Tin     cans     and     general 

equipment. 

Savannah      Wooden-ware 

Company Savannah,  Georgia Glass  jars. 

Schloss,  Ben   San    Francisco,   Calif..  .  .Two-piece  top  jars. 

Smalley  Fruit  Jar  Com- 
pany   Boston,  Massachusetts  .  .Queen  glass  jars. 

Southern  Can  Company.  .Baltimore,  Maryland   .  .  .Tin  cans. 

Staunton     Jar     Corpora- 
tion     Buffalo,  New  York Vacuum  seal  jars. 

Ellicott  Square. 

Tennessee  Can  Company. Chattanooga,  Tennessee.. Tin  cans. 


APPENDIX 


351 


Thatcher  Manufacturing 

Company Elmira,  New  York Glass  jars. 

Travis  Glass  Company.  .Clarksburg,  Virginia   ...Glass  jars. 

United  States  Can  Com- 
pany   Cincinnati,  Ohio  Tin  cans. 

Virginia  Can  Company.  .Buchanan,  Virginia   ....Tin  cans. 

Western  Stoneware  Com- 
pany   Monmouth,  Illinois  . 

White  Crown  Fruit  Jar 
Company Louisville,  Kentucky 


.Earthenware  jars. 


White  Crown  screw  caps 

for  Mason  jars. 
National  Can  Company.  .Baltimore,  Maryland  .  .  .Tin  cans. 

Vegetable  and  Fruit  Drying  Equipment  for  Commercial  and  Home  Use 

Alien  Fruit  Company.  .  .  .Salem,  Oregon. 

Beck     Evaporator     Com- 
pany  Watsonville,  California. 

Boutell       Manufacturing 

Company Rochester,  New  York. 

Blymyer       Iron       Works 

Company Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Caledonia  Bean  Harvest- 
er Works   Caledonia,  New  York. 

Devine,  J.  P.,  Company.  .Buffalo,  New  York. 

Fahrney,  E.  B Waynesboro,  Pa. 

Field,  J.  A.,  &  Co St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

6th  and  Howard  Sts. 

Gaylord,  F.  D Sodus  Point,  New  York .  .  Furnaces. 

General  Dehydrator  Com- 
pany     New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

114-118  Liberty  St. 

Goodrich,  A.  C.,  &  Co. ..  North  Yamhill,  Oregon. 

Granger      Manufacturing 

Company Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Harrison  Eich Carrolites,  California. 

Miller,  F.   H Caledonia,  New  York Furnaces. 

Munsville  Plow  CompanyMunsville,  New  York. 

Palmer  &  Co Noble,. Illinois. 

Sebastian    Brothers Odin,  Illinois. 

Smith's,  E.,  Sons Buffalo,  New  York. 

Seeley,  D.   W Sodus  Point,  New  York.. .  Furnaces. 

Shaver,  H.  W Sodus  Point,  New  York...  Furnaces. 

Southern      Canner      and 

Evaporator   Company. .  Chattanooga,  Tennessee. 


352  SUCCESSFUL  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING 

Sperry,  D.  R.,  &  Co. . North  Aurora,  Illinois. 

Steam  Heat  Evaporating 

Company Charlotte,  Michigan. 

Stutzman  Manufacturing 

Company Ligonier,  Indiana. 

Trescott,  W.  A Fairport,  New  York. 


Miscellaneous  Corrugated  Cardboard  Containers 

American  Paper  Products  Company..  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  205  Bremen  Ave. 

Andrew  Paper  Box  Company Chattanooga,  Tennessee. 

Empire  Printing  and  Box  Company ..  Atlanta,  Georgia. 

Hinde  &  Dauch  Paper  Company Sandusky,  Ohio. 

LaFore  Foster  Company Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1211  Noble  St. 

Lawrence  Paper  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany   Lawrence,  Kansas. 

Mid-West  Box  Company Anderson,  Indiana. 

Robert  Gair  Company Brooklyn,  New  York. 

Sefton  Manufacturing  Company    Chicago,  Illinois,  1301  West  35th  St. 

Thompson  &  Norris  Company Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Prince  and  Concord 
Sts. 

Brookville,  Indiana. 

Cardboard   Paraffin-coated   Containers 

American  Can  Company New  York  City,  N.  Y.,  447  W.  14th  St 

American  Mono-Service  Company ....  Newark,  New  Jersey. 

Purity  Paper  Bottle  Company Washington,  D.  C.,  1341  S.  Capitol  St 

Sanitary  Paper  Bottle  Company Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Weis  Manufacturing  Company Monroe,  Michigan. 

Wyle,  T.  Wilson Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 


INDEX 


Accounts    for    canners,    blanks   and 

directions,   314,   315 
Accuracy,     special     equipment    for, 

37-39 
Acetic    acid    formation    in    vinegar, 

111,  113 

in     vinegar,     law     require- 
ments,   109,    115 
loss  in  vinegar  making,  114 
percentage  in  60-grain  vin- 
egar,  206 
fermentation    of    vinegar,    113, 

117 
Acid,    addition    to    sweet    juices    in 

jelly   making,    175,    176 
essential  in  fruit  jelly  making, 

175 

Acidity  test  for  pickling  brine,  194 
Acids,  injurious  to  bacterial  growth, 

29 
Address   list,   institutions    directing 

extension    work,    346 
lists,  iirms  having  canning  out- 
fits,   etc.,    348-352 
Aerobes,  nature  and  action  on  food- 
stuffs,  25-27 

Agricultural  extension  work,   insti- 
tutions   directing,    list,    346-348 
Air,    exclusion    from    pickle    brine, 

directions,  194,  195 
Alcohol   formation  in  vinegar,    110, 

111 
use    in    protecting    jelly    from 

mold,   185 
Alcoholic    fermentation   in   vinegar, 

112,   116 

America,   canning   introduction  and 
development,  5,  6 

23  353 


Anaerobes,    nature    and    action    on 

foodstuffs,  25-28 
Antiseptics,   objectionable  in   foods, 

31,  32 

Appert,  Nicholas,  studies  and  experi- 
ments in  canning  foods,  1,  2 
Apollinaris  tea,  recipe,  121 
Appendix,  346-352 
Apple  butter,  recipe  and  directions, 

168 
chutney,  recipes  and  directions, 

207 
cores  and  skins,  drying  and  use, 

238 

juice,    use    with    other    flavors 
and  colors  for  jelly,  186,  187 
preserves,  recipe  and  directions, 

157, 158       * 
sauce   canning,    124 
syrup,    directions    for    making, 

104,  105 
Apples,  canning,  directions,  124 

drying,  directions,  230,  237,  238 
sugar  content,   relation  to  vin- 
egar making,  111,   112 
Appropriations,    state    and    federal, 

for  demonstration  work,  283 
Apricots,  syrup  making,  directions, 

108 

drying,  directions,  238 
Apron  for  garden  work,  289 

housewife's,   significance,   286 
Aprons  for  canning-club  girls,  287, 

288 

Artichoke  pickle,  recipe,  221 
Artichokes,  canning,  directions,  133. 

134 
Asparagus   canning,   directions,   133 


354 


INDEX 


Aspergillus,  injurious  fungus,  17 
Atlantic  Coast,  canning  industry,  6 

! 
B.  S.  chutney,  recipe  and  directions, 

206,  207 
Bacon  pickle  in  brine,  264 

sugar-cured,  directions,  263,  264 

Bacteria,    aerobic      and     anaerobic, 

classification  and  action,  25- 

28 

harmful    to    cucumber    pickles, 

194 

in  cucumber  pickling,  194 
in  resting  stage,  resistance,  21, 

22 
nature,  growth,  and  control,  20- 

23,  25-28 
nonsporulating,  destruction,  by 

boiling  temperature,  21,  27 
relation  to  canning,  importance, 

6,    12 
relation  to  vinegar  making,  110, 

114 

substances  injurious  to,  29 
Bacteriology  as  applied  to  canning, 

15-35 

Bacillus   butyricus,   illustration,   24 
Bacillus   found  on  tomatoes,   show- 
ing flagellae,  illustration,  19 
Bacillus   megatherium,   illustration, 

26 

Balling  hydrometer,  description,  131 
Baltimore,  canning  industry,  begin- 
ning, 5 
Banner  of  Spain  chutney,  recipe  and 

directions,  206,  207 
Banks,  earth,  for  storing  root  vege- 
tables, 251-252 

Barks,    medicinal,    selling   to    drug- 
gists, 250 
Barrels,  .use    in    cucumber    brining, 

bunging  and  turning,  195,  196 
Basement    storage    room    for    vege- 
tables, 251 


Basket,   fruit-press,    description,   95 
holding  cans  or  jars  for  proc- 
essing, 80 

Bay,    sweet,    leaves,    drying,    249 
Beans,  canned,  grades,  307 

canning,  directions,   134,  135 
dried,  cooking,  247 
fermenting,    directions,    215 
green,  string,  drying  directions, 

243 
heat  destruction  of  vitality  for 

seed  use,  243 

shelled,  drying  directions,  243 
protein  source,  276,  279 
sterilization    intermittent,     for 

control  of  bacteria,  22,  23 
storage,  254 
Beef  casings,  268 

corned,  directions,  258,  259 
drying,  directions,  259,  260 
preserving,  methods,  258-260 
Beets  drying,  directions,  244 
fermenting,  directions,  215 
pickled,   recipe,   221 
small,  canning  directions,  135 
Berries,  canned,  grading,  307 
canning,  directions  124,  125 
drying,   directions,  238,   239 
preserving,    general    directions, 

154 

washing,  directions,   125 
Berry  shrub,  directions  for  making, 

119 

Bibliography,  13,  35,  58,  85,  86,  122, 
123,  147,  188,  227,  255,  274,  281, 
344,  345 

Blackberry  flummery,  recipe,  121 
Blanching,  directions,  62,  63 
utensils,  38,  39 
vegetables  for  drying,  242 
Bloomers  for  garden  work,  288,  289 
Boiling  ham,  recipe    (Virginia   and 
Louisiana  combination),  273 


INDEX 


355 


Boiling  temperature,  destructive  to 

bacteria  in  growing  state,  21,  27 

Bologna     sausage,     directions,    267, 

268 

Bottles,  sterilizing,  98 
Bottling  fruit  juices,  99,  100 

grape  syrup,  108 

Brands    for    canned   goods,    import- 
ance, 306 

Breakfast  bacon,  sugar-cured,  direc- 
tions, 263,  264 
Brine,  acidity  test,  194 

for  corned  beef,  directions,  258, 

259 

for  cucumbers,  making  and  test- 
ing, 192 
for    curing    meats,'  directions, 

258,  260 
for    picking    bacon    and    hams, 

264 
sealing     from     air,     directions, 

194,  195 

use  in  canning  vegetables,  133 
Brines,  salt  percentage  table,  192 
Brining  cauliflower,  directions,  213, 

214 

onions,  directions,  215 
principles   and   directions,    190, 

191 
Brown,   Margaret  and   Mary   Belle, 

success  in  canning  work,  305 
Bulletins  for  women  county  agents, 

Oklahoma,  321 

Business  side  of  canning,  300-315 
Butters,    fruit,    general    directions, 
164,  165 

Cabbage  drying,  directions,  245 
storage  methods,  252 

Calcium  chloride,  addition  to  water- 
bath  to  raise  temperature,  9 

California,  fruit  and  vegetable  can- 
ning, 5 


California,  open-air  drying  of  foods, 

229,  232 

Candied  fruits,  directions,  161,  162 
Cane  paddle,  use  in  canning,  38,  71, 

72,74 
Canned  goods  grading,  307 

selling,     work     by     North 
Carolina    canning    clubs, 
300-306 
products,    consumption    and 

value,  1916,  11 
score  card,  general,  340 
storing,  76 
Canner,  commercial,  outfits,  77-82 

homemade,  77 
Canneries,  early,  establishment  and 

rapid  increase,  5 
Canners,   steam,  for  home  use,  87- 

90 

Canning,  bacteriology  of,  15-35 
beginning  in  England,  3 
business  side  of,  300-315 
club  organization,  282-299 

work,  North  Carolina,  sum- 
mary, 1912-1916,  306 
clubs,  initial  work,  283,  285 
members,  1916,  296 
Oklahoma,     outlined     pro- 
gram, 320 

output,  1916,  11,  296 
commercial,     introduction     and 
development  in  America,  5,  6 
equipment  and  preparation  for, 

36-58 

improvements,  8-11 
importance  in  supplying  varied 

diet,  12 

in  glass,  71-76 
in  large  containers,  48 
in  tin,  59-70 

industry,  location  and  develop- 
ment, 6-8 
laws,  information,  69 


356 


INDEX 


Canning  outfits  and  supplies,  firms, 

address  list,  348-352 
scientific,  history,  1-14 
teaching,  school  courses,  etc., 

316-345 
time-table,  processing  by  steam, 

91 
time-tables,    hot-water    process, 

83-85 

Cans,  cooling  and  protecting,  43 
sanitary,  description,  49 
sealing,  tools,  50,  51 
testing,  68 
tin,    manufacturing,    early    and 

present  methods,  3,  4 
Cantaloupe  pickles,  recipes,  222,  223 
Canvas     for     meat,     yellow     wash, 

recipe,  272,  273 
Capping  bottles,  directions,  102 

tin  cans,  64 

Caps,  adjusting  on  glass  jars,  74 
Carbonate  of   lime,   use   in   making 

fruit  syrups  104,  107 
Carrots  canning,  directions,   135 
drying,  directions,  244 
sweet  pickled,  221 
Casings,  sausage,  cleaning  and  pre- 
paring, 268 
Cauliflower  brining,  directions,  213, 

214 

Caves  for  storing  vegetables,  direc- 
tions for  making,  253 
Celery     leaves,     drying,     directions, 

246 

storage,  252,  253 
vinegar,  recipe,  220 
Cellar,  storage  of  vegetables,  251 
Cellars,    outdoor,    for    storing   vege- 
tables, directions,  253 
Cereals,  substitute  for  bread,  278 
Chayotes  fermenting,  directions,  215 
sweet    pickled,    recipe    and    di- 
rections, 223,  224 


Cheese,  head,  directions,  264 
Chemicals     added    to    foods,    detri- 
mental to  health,  31,  32 
Chemistry      Bureau,       Agricultural 
Department,    experiments    in 
drying  foods,  230 
of  vinegar  making,  110,  111 
Cherries  canning,  directions,  125 
drying,  directions,  240 
spiced,  directions,  225 
vinegarette,    recipe    and    direc- 
tions, 160 

Cherry  preserves,   recipe  and  direc- 
tions, 155,  160 
Chicago,  meat  canning,  6 
Children's  diet,  importance  of  fruits 

and  vegetables,  277 
Chile    peppers    canning,    directions, 

140 
Chili    sauce,    recipe    and    directions, 

211,212 

Chimney  for  outdoor  canner,  82 
Chow-chow,     sweet     pepper,     recipe 

and  directions,  206 
Chutneys,  definition,  recipes  and  di- 
rections, 190,  206,  207 
Cider  making,  directions,   103,   104 
Cincinnati,  canning  industry,  begin- 
ning, 5 

Cities,  gardening  and  canning,  322 
Clarifying  grape  juice,  117,  118 
Cleanliness,    importance    in    control 

of  bacteria,  6 

Cleveland  school  gardens,  323,  324 
Clock,  necessity  for  accurate  work, 

38 

Club  members,  assistance  to  one  an- 
other instances,  293,  294 
work,  cooperation  of  home  and 

school,  292,  293 
Clubs,    canning,    organization,    282- 

299 
canning.  See  also  Canning  clubs. 


INDEX 


357 


Cold  storage,  use  in  food  preserva- 
tion, 33 

Color,  preserving  in  blanching,  63 
Coloring  for  jellies,  note,  187,  188 
Community  activities,  benefits  of 

club  work,  293,  294 
Concentrated   cider  making,   103 
Concord  grape  juice,  directions,  119 
Conserves,  description,  165 

marmalades  and  jams,   163-173 
Containers,    estimating    and    order- 
ing, suggestions,  45,  50 
packed,      demonstration     work, 

number  and  value,  296 
sterilizing    before    packing,    63, 

64 

types,  description,   44-.") 7 
Conveniences,  home,  results  of  dem- 
onstration work,  296,  297 
Cooker,  agitating,  description,  10 

See  also  Canner ;  Processor 
Cooking  dried  fruits  and  vegetables, 

directions,  242,  247 
jelly,    general    directions,     182, 

183 
preserves,    syrup    density,    etc., 

148-150 

Cook- stove  drier,    homemade,   direc- 
tions for  making,  235,  236 
Cooling  cans,  directions,  68 

preserves,  directions,  150,  151 
Cooperation      between      home      and 

school,  292,  293 
community,    increased    by    club 

work,  293 
in   growing   herbs,    desirability, 

248 
method    of    minimizing    labor, 

39-41 

Copper  and  steel,  cleaning  and  tin- 
ning, directions,  59,  60 
Corking  fruit  juices,  100 
Corks,  cleaning  and  sterilizing,  100 


Corn,   canned,   annual    consumption, 

report,  1916,  11 
canning,  directions,   137,    138 
earliest     record,     Portland, 

Maine,  5 
equipment,       improvement, 

8,  9 
location  of  leading  supply, 

7 

methods,  5 
relish,     recipe     and    directions, 

205 
sterilization     intermittent,     for 

control  of  bacteria,  22,  23 
sweet,    drying,   directions,    244 
Covers  for  jelly  glasses,   184 
Crabapple     marmalade,     directions, 

106 

Crabapples,  spiced,  recipe,  222 
Cranberry   ketchup,    recipe   and    di- 
rections, 211 
Creole     sauce     canning,     directions, 

145-147 
Crops,    profitable    to    girl    canners, 

311,  312 

Crout.      See  Sauer  kraut. 
Crystals,    tartaric    acid,    prevention 

in  jelly,  100 
Cucumber    and    red    pepper,    sweet 

pickles,   199,  200 
slices,  pickled,  198 
sweet  pickles,  198 
Cucumbers   brining,    191,    192,    195, 

196 

fermenting,  215 
grading  for  pickles,   192,   193 
pickling,  general  directions  and 

recipes,  191-200 
Curing    meats,    general    directions, 

257,  258 

Currant     cherry     preserves,     direc- 
tions, 155 
Currants,  spiced,  directions,  224 


358 


INDEX 


Daggett,  Ezra,  canning  industry  es- 
tablishment in  United  States,  5 
Dairy    equipment   improvement   un- 
der demonstration  work,  297 
Damson    plums,    spiced,    directions. 

225 

Demonstration    work    among    farm 
women,  results,  295-298 
of  club  girls,  285,  286 
Desserts    made    with    fruit    juices, 

119-121 

Dial  gauge  on  steam  canner,  89 
Diet,  need  of  fruits  and  vegetables 

supplied  by  canning,  12 
use    of    fruits    and    vegetables, 

275-281 

varied,  importance,  12,  280 
Dill  pickles,  directions,  190,  213,  214 
Dispatch  in  preserving  when  fresh, 

importance,  25,  61,  151 
Dixie   relish,   recipe   and  directions, 

204 
Dried  fruit,  cooking,  242 

sorting   and    storage,   241 
vegetables  cooking,  use  in  soups, 

etc.,  247 
reheating,  246 
storing  246,  247 

Driers,  fruit  and  vegetable,  descrip- 
tion and  use,  233-236 
homemade,    directions,    233-236 
Dry     kiln,     homemade,     description 

and  use,  229 
Drying    equipment,    firms,    address 

list,  351 

food  preservation  method,  prin- 
ciples, 30 

foods,  general  methods,  228-236 
fruits,    vegetables,    and    herbs. 

228-255 

herbs,      directions      and      time- 
tables, 248,  249 
meats,  general  principles,  256 


Durrand,  Peter,  English  patent  for 
canning  in  tin,  3 

Egg  circles,  work  and  number,  296 
Electric  fan,  use  in  drying  food,  ex- 
periments, 230 
Enamel-lined   cans,    description    and 

advantages,  48 
necessary  for  certain  prod- 
ucts,   124,   126,   128,   138, 
142 

Energy,  sources  in  foods,  275 
England,  early  history  of  canning,  3 
English    mushroom  ketchup,  210 
Knzymes,     nature,     and     effects     on 

food,  24,  25 

Equipment  and  preparation  for  can- 
ning, 36-58 

canning,  improvements   and  in- 
ventions, 8-11 

for  girl's  garden  work,  289,  290 

for  portable  outdoor  canner,  79 

special,  for  preserving,  151,  152 

Evaporating,      method      of      drying 

foods,  229 
Evaporators,  descriptions,  citations, 

230 
fruit  and  vegetable,  description 

and  use,  233-236 
Exhausting  tin  cans,  directions,  64, 

65 
Exhibits,    prize,     illustrations     and 

suggestions,  336-339 
Extension  of  useful  information  by 

home  demonstrators,  298 
work,    address    list    of    institu- 
tions directing,  346-348 
Extracting    fruit    juices    for    jelly, 
175-178 

Fancy  packs  of  jelly,  186 
Feli,  drying  and  use,  249 
Fermentation,  cause,  15 


INDEX 


359 


Fermentation,  destructive  in  vinegar 

making,  cause,  114 
forms  and  processes,  19,  20 
in  pickling  brine,  necessity  and 

result,  194 

in  vinegar  making,  112,  114,  116 
use    in    preserving    vegetables, 

215-220 

Fig  canning,   directions,   125,   126 
conserve,  recipe  and  directions, 

170 

jam,  directions,  167 
paste,  directions,  171 
preserves,     recipes     and     direc- 
tions, 159 

Figs,  sweet  pickle,  recipe  and  direc- 
tions, 224 

Filter,  fruit-juice,  homemade,  98 
Financing  demonstration  work,  282- 

284 
Fire-box  built  in,   outdoor   canners, 

90 
Fireless   cookers,    installed   in   farm 

homes,  296 
Fire-pot  for  heating  canning   tools, 

48,  82,  83 
First-year    work    for   girls'   canning 

clubs,  286-290,  318,  319 
Fish     canning,     earliest     record     in 

America,  5 

"  Flat    sours,"    cause    and    appear- 
ance, 26-28 
Flavoring  sauces  from  fruit  syrups, 

uses,  108 
Flux,   making,   and   use,   directions, 

59,  64,  66 
Fly  campaigns,  demonstration  work, 

297 
Fly-trap,     homemade,     illustrations, 

43,44 
Fly-traps,   results  of  demonstration 

work,  297 
use  near  canning  locality,  40 


Food,  drying,  protection  from  rain, 

dust  and  insects,  233,  240 
laws,  knowledge  needed  in  com- 
mercial canning,  69 
partially  cooked,  good  medium 

for  germs,  27 
preparation  demonstration 

work,  results,  296 
preserving     methods,     old     and 

new,  1,  29-33 

spoilage,  theories  of  early  can- 
ners, 1,  2,  6 
cause,  discovery,  4,  5 
Foods,     canned,     consumption     and 

value,  1916,  11 
increased  demand,   11 
classes  supplying  needs  of  body, 

275,  276 
drying,    general    methods,    228- 

236 
Foodstuffs,    putrefaction,   causes,    4, 

5,  15,  20-28 
Fourth-year    canning    club     course, 

319 
Fruit    butters    and    pastes,    general 

directions,  164,   165 
cup,  directions  for  making,  119 
driers   or   evaporators,    descrip- 
tion and  use,  233-236 
juices  corking  and  sealing,  100, 

101 

extracting    for    jelly    mak- 
ing, 175-178 
heating,  99,  100 
homemade    filter,     descrip- 
tion, 98 

pasteurizing,   100 
preparation,  bottling,  stor- 
ing, etc.,  93-123 
reheating  and  bottling,  99, 

100 

testing     in     jelly     making, 
178,  179 


360 


INDEX 


Fruit   juices,  uses,   recipes,   119-121 
value  and  use,  93 

medley  conserve,  recipe  and  di- 
rections, 169 

nectar,   directions,   121 

press,    homemade,    construction 

and  use,  94-97 
household,  94 

punch,    directions    for    making, 

120 

Fruits    and    vegetables,    use    in    the 
diet,  275-281 

candied,  directions,  161,  162 

canning,  directions,  124-132 
time-table,  hot-water  proc- 
ess, 84,  85 

cooking  to  extract  juice,  175, 
176 

crushing  and  straining,  95,  96 

dried,  storage,  241 

drying,  directions,  231,  237-241 

for  canning,    124-132 

importance  in  diet,  12 

liability  to  molds,  17 

nonpectin,  174,  175,  ISO 

packing  in  glass  jars,  71 

picking,  sorting,  and  cleaning, 
93,  94 

preparation  for  canning,  scald- 
ing, peeling,  and  blanching, 
61-63 

prompt  canning  important  to 
success,  24 

properties    necessary    for    jelly 

making,  174,  175 
selection,   sorting  and  grading, 
60,61 

spiced,  recipes,  222-226 

underripe,  use  in  jelly  making, 
175 

washing,  peeling,  coring,  etc., 
utensils,  36,  37 


Free-run    juice,    superiority,    96-98, 

106 

French     method     of     drying     green 
vegetables,  230,  231 
government,   work  in  discovery 

of  canning  methods,  1,  2 
Fuel  for  smokehouse,  and  directions 

for  fire,  271 

Fungi,  injurious  to  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, 17 

Garden  kneeling  pad  and  apron,  289, 

290 

Gardening  in  cities,  322 
Gasoline  stove  for  canning,  82-90 
Gauge,  dial,  steam  cooker,  89,  90 
General    Education    Board,    help    to 

demonstration  work,  282 
Germs  causing  putrefaction,  nature 

and  control,  20-28 
Ginger  apples,  directions,    157 

pears,  directions,  157 
Girls'  club  meetings,  program,  sug- 
gestions, 290-292 
See  also  Canning  clubs 
Girls,    fine    marketing    records    for 

canned  goods,  305 
responsibility     for     their     own 
canned  products,  301-303,  310 
Glass,  canning  in,  71-76 

containers,     shapes,    sixes,    and 

types,  52-57 

first  use  in  canning,  2,  3 
jars,  packing  for  shipment,  312, 

313 

selection,  52,  53 
sterilizing,  71 
testing  the  seals,  28,  29 
Glasses,   jelly,   filling   and  covering, 

183,  184 
Golden    pumpkin    chips,    directions, 

158 
Goldthwaite,  Miss,  mention,  188 


INDEX 


361 


Gooseberries      canning,      directions, 

126 
spiced,    recipe    and    directions, 

224 

Green  mango  pickles,  recipe  and  di- 
rections, 208 

tomato  pickle,  recipe  and  direc- 
tions, 201 

Greens  canning,  directions,   143 
Grading  canned  goods,  307 

cucumbers     for     pickling,     192, 

193 

fruits  and  vegetables,  60,  61 
Grape  cup,  directions,  119 
frappe,  directions,  121 
jam,  directions,   167 
juice  bottling,  117 

clarifying,  117,   118 
heating    in    syrup    making, 

107 
ketchup,    recipe   and  directions, 

210 

Grape  syrup,  directions,  106-108 
Grapefruit    marmalade,     directions, 

166 

Grapes,   spiced,   directions,   224 
crushing  and  pressing,  106 
green,  pectin  content,  118 
Guava  butter,  directions,  168 
need  of  acid  in  jelly,  175 

Ham  baking,  recipe,  273 

boiling,    recipe     (Virginia    and 

Louisiana  combination),  273 

cutting,    salting,    and    smoking, 

261-263 

Hams,  pickling  in  brine,  264 
Hawaii,    pineapple    canning,    rapid 

development,  7,  8 
Head  cheese,  directions,  264 
Health,     importance     of     vegetable 

food  in  diet,  277-279 
Heat,     use     in     food     preparation, 
methods,  32,  33 


Heating  grape  juice  for  syrup,  107 
Herbs,   drying,  directions,  248-250 
importance  in  cooking,  248 
use  in  confectionery  and  per- 
fumery, 249 
use    in    medicine,    possibilities. 

list,  250 
Hermetic   seal  jar,   description   and 

use,  55,  56,  74,  76 
History  of  development  of  scientific 

canning,   1-14 
Hog  casings,  268 
Home   conveniences,    installation   in 

farm  homes,  296,  297 
demonstration     clubs,     canning 

output,  1916,  11,  296 
work  for  women,  Oklahoma, 

321 
work,  object,  funds,  agents, 

etc.,  282-299 

economics    work,    expenditures, 
sources  and  amounts,  283,  284 
storage  of  vegetables,  250-254 
vinegar  making,  109-117 
Homemade  canner,  77 

conveniences,  results  of  demon- 
stration  work,   296,   297 
driers,    description    and    direc- 
tions, 233-236 
fly-trap,  illustration,  43,  44 
fruit-press,      construction      and 

use,  94-97 

fruit- juice  filter,  description,  98 
sealing  wax,  recipe,  101 
Hominy,   lye,   preparation   and   can- 
ning, 138,  139 

Hydraulic   pressure,    use    in   drying 
foods,  230 

Iceless  refrigerators,  demonstration 

work,  results,  296 
Ices,    fruit,    directions    for   making, 

120 
Illinois,   canning   industry,   7 


362 


INDEX 


Indoor     canning,     arrangement     of 

equipment,  36,  37 
drying,  commercial  methods,  230 
Intermittent    processing,    definition 

and  direction,  22,  23,  76,  83 
Invoice    for    shipments    of    canned 

goods,  313 
Iron  in  vegetable  foods,  277 

Jams,  general  directions,  163,  164 
grading,  307 
marmalades  and  preserves,  163- 

173 

Jar  lifters,  description  and  use,  39 
Jars,  glass,  selection,  52,  53 
Jellies,  fancy,  use  of  pectin,  flavor- 
ing, etc.,  186 
storing,  185 

Jellometer,  description  and  use,  180 
Jelly  cooking,  quantity  of  juice,  180 

general  directions,  182 
crystals,  prevention,  100 
making,  174-188 
pouring  into  glasses  and  cover- 
ing,  183,   184 
protection    from   mold,    18,    30, 

183,  184 

qualities  essential  to  good  prod- 
uct, 174 
score  card,  342 
testing,  directions,  183 
"  weeping,"  prevention,  185 
Jobber,     selling    to,    in    marketing 

canned  goods,  311 

Juices,  fruit,  bottling  for  jelly  mak- 
ing, 99,  100 

fruit,  extraction,  methods,  94-99 
fruit.    See  also  Fruit  juice 

Kansas  City,  meat  canning,  6 
Kerosene    stove,    gas-flame,    use    in 

canning,  82-90 

Ketchup,  definition,  recipes,  and  di- 
rections, 190,  209-211 


Ketchup  grading,  307 

Kettle,    steam-jacketed,    description, 

9,  161 
Kiln,    dry,    homemade,    description 

and  use,  229 

Knives,  paring,  selection,  36 
Kumquat  marmalade,  directions,  166 
preserves,  recipe  and  directions, 

156 
Kumquats,  whole,   preserves,  recipe 

and  directions,  156 

Lactic  acid,  use  in  preservation  of 

vegetables,  29,  31 
Labelling  fruit  juices,  102 
glass  jars,  directions,  76 
jelly  glasses,  directions,  184 
tin  cans,  68,  69 
Labels,  can,  importance,  and  printed 

contents,  308,  309 
Laboratory,   small,  list  of  supplies, 

suggestions,  333-335 
Labor-saving    devices    for    canning, 

8-11 
results     of     demonstration 

work,  297 

Lard,  trying  out,  directions,  265,  266 
Lawrence,   Major,  specifications  for 

smokehouse,  269-273 
Laws,  canned  products,  obtaining  in- 
formation, 69 
Leaves,  herb,  drying,  248 
Legal  standard,  vinegar,  New  York, 

109,  115 
Lemon  butter,  directions,  168 

syrup,  directions,  108 
Lightning- seal   jar,    description,   53, 

54 
Lima  beans,  canning,  directions,  135 

drying,  directions,  243 
Lime  carbonate,  use  in  making  fruit 

-syrups,  103,  104,  107' 
water,  use  in  drying  figs,  240 


INDEX 


363 


Liquid  smoke,  formula  and  use,  257 
Leeks,   drying,   directions,  245 
Lumber     for     constructing     smoke- 
house, list  and  cost,  269,  270 
Lussac,  Guy,  investigations  of  can- 
ning, and  theory  of  food  spoilage,  2 
Lye   hominy,    preparation   and   can- 
ning, 138,  139 

solution  for  soaking  olives,  218 
use  in  peeling  peaches,  126 

Macedoine  fruit  mixture,  directions, 

129 

Machine  for  sealing  cans,  49,  51 
Machines  for  canning  corn,  improve- 
ment on  old  methods,  8,  9 
labor-saving,    use    in    canning, 

8-11 

Maine,  canning  industry,  7 
Malate    of    lime,    settling   in    apple 

syrup,  105 

Malic  acid,  disappearance  from  vine- 
gar, 114,  115 
removal   from   apple   juice, 

103,   105 
Mango,  sweet,  recipe  and  directions, 

209 
Mangoes  ( pickles ) ,  definition,  recipes 

and  directions,  190,  207-209 
Marjoram,  drying,  directions,  249 
Marketing  canned  goods,  girls'  clubs, 

300 
policy   for    canning    clubs,    309, 

310 

Marmalade,  general  directions,  163 
Marmalades,    jams,    and    conserves, 

163-173 

Maryland,  canning  industry,  7 
Meal,    well-balanced,    requirements, 

279,  280 
Meat   canvas,    yellow    wash,    recipe, 

272,  273 

packing    in   smokehouse,    direc- 
tions, 271 


Meat's  drying,  general  principles,  256 
preservation,  256-274 
should  be  accompanied  by  vege- 
table foods,  278 
smoked,  keeping,  271,  272 
Medicinal  herbs,  gathering  and  dry- 
ing, 249,  250 
Medley    fruit    conserve,    recipe    and 

directions,  169 
Mince-meat,  green  tomato,  recipe  and 

directions,   172,   173 
Mineral  materials  supplied  by  foods, 

275,  276 
Mint  drying,  directions,  249 

jelly,   directions,   187,   188 
Mississippi     normal-school     garden 

work,  332 
Mixed    pickles,    definition,    recipes, 

and  directions,  190,  200-204 
Mixtures,  fruit,  canning,  directions, 

129 

Mock  olives,  directions,  220 
Mold    prevention    in    canned    foods, 
jellies,  etc.,   18,  30,   151,   183,   184 
Molds,    nature,    growth,    injury    to 

food,  and  control,  15-19 
Money  crops  for  girls'  canning  gar- 
dens, 311,  312 

"  Mother,"  vinegar,  addition  in  vine- 
gar making,  113 
Muscadine   grape    syrup,    directions 

for  making,  106-108 
Mushroom  ketchup,   English,  recipe 

and  directions,  210 
Mushrooms,  drying  directions,  246 

pickled,  directions,   220 
Mustard  dressing  for  pickles,  direc- 
tions, 203 
Durham,    first    prepared    by    a 

woman,  248 

pickle,    recipe    and    directions, 
201-204 


364 


INDEX 


Navy  beans,  harvesting  and  storing, 

254 

New  Jersey,  canning  industry,  7 
New  York,  canning  industry  begin- 
ning, 5 

City,     expenditures     for     milk, 
bread,  eggs,  and  canned  foods, 
11 
evaporators,    drying    vegetables 

for  French  army,  230 
fruit  and  vegetable  canning,  7 
vinegar  making  and  legal  stand- 
ard, 109-117 
Wayne      county,      evaporators, 

number  in  use,  229 
Normal    schools,   garden    work    and 

instruction,  325,  330-333 
North  Carolina  canning   club  girls, 

illustrations,  41,  42 
canning  clubs,  business  experi- 
ences, 300-315 

county  agents,  illustration,  313 
Nutrients    supplied   by    foods,    275- 
280 

Oil    stove    for    heating    copper    and 

steel,  43,  47 

Oklahoma,  girls'  clubs,  program,  out- 
line, 320 

women's    clubs,    program,    out- 
line, 321 
Okra  canning,  directions,  139 

drying,  directions,  245 
Olives,  brining,  directions,  219 
pickling,  directions,  217-220 
varieties  used  for  pickling,  217 
washing,  directions,  218,  219 
Onion  vinegar  recipe,  220 
Onions,  brining,  directions,  215 
drying,  directions,  245 
pickling,  215,  216 
storing,  254 

Open  kettle  for  processing,  descrip- 
tion,  74 


Open-air  drying  adapted  to  dry  cli- 
mates, 229,  232,  237 
Orange   ice,   recipe,   120 

marmalade,    recipe    and    direc- 
tions, 165 

pectin,  preparation,  186,   187 
peel,  source  of  pectin,  175 
sour,  preserves  and  marmalade, 

155,  165,  166 
Orange-lemon-grapefruit  marmalade, 

recipe,  166 

Oregon,  canning  salmon,  6 
Organisms  causing  fermentation  and 

putrefaction,  15-28 
Outdoor    canning,    arrangement    of 
tables   and   equipment,   40-44 
caves  or  cellars  for  storing  vege- 
tables, 253 
Oxygen,  relation  to  bacteria,  25-28 

Packing  canned  goods  for  shipment, 

312 

containers,  directions,  64 
fruit   and   vegetables   in   glass 

jars  for  canning,  71 
preserves,  in  jars,    150,    151 
Paddles,  use  in  canning,  and  direc- 
tions for  making,  38,  71,  72,  74 
Paddling  contents   of  glass   jars   to 

exclude  air,  71,  72 
Paraffin,  use  in  sealing  pickle  con- 
tainers, 195 
use  on  jelly  to  prevent  molds, 

183-184 
Parasitic    organisms,     illustrations, 

16 
Parcels    post,    shipments    of   canned 

goods,  313 
Parsley    leaves,    drying,    directions, 

246,  249 

Parsnips,  drying,  directions,  244 
Paste  -for  labels,  formula  and  direc- 
tions for  use,  69 


INDEX 


36^ 


Paste,  tomato,  recipe  and  directions, 

212 
Pastes,  fruit,  general  directions,  170, 

171 
Pasteur,  discoveries  in  bacteriology, 

importance,  4,  5 
Pasteurization,     use    in    preserving 

food,  32 

Pasteurizer  made  of  wash  boiler,  100 
Pasteurizing  fruit  juices,  100 
Payments    for    canned   goods,    man- 
agement, 313 
Peach  butter,  recipe  and  directions, 

1G8 

jam,  recipe  and  directions,  167 
preserves,  recipe  and  directions, 

156,   157 

roll  or   leather,   directions,   172 
Peaches,  canned,  grading,  307 
canning  directions,   126,  127 
drying,  directions,  240,  241 
peeling,  lye  method,  126 
sweet    pickled,    recipes   and    di- 
rections,  225 
Peanut  butter,  recipe  and  directions, 

168,    169 
Pear  preserves,  recipe  and  directions, 

157 

Pears,  canning,  directions,  128 
drying,  directions,  241 
spiced,    recipe    and    directions, 

225,  226 
Peas,   canned,   annual    consumption, 

report,    1916,    11 
canning,  directions,    139,    140 
dried,  storage,  254 
green,  drying,  directions,  243 
sterilization,    intermittent,    for 

control  of  bacteria,  22,  23 
Pectin  developed  by  heat,  175 

essential  in  jelly  making,  17'5 
testing  in  fruit  juice,  178-180 
orange,  preparation,  186,  187 


Pectin  sources,  118,  175 
Peeling  fruits  and  vegetables,  61,  62 
Penicillium,  injurious  fungus,  17 
Pepper    mango,    stuffed,    directions, 

207,  208 

relish,  directions,  205 
sauce,  directions,  212 
sweet,  chow-chow,  206 
Peppers  and  cucumbers,  sweet  pickle, 

199,  200 

canning,  directions,  140 
drying,  directions,  245-249 
Perennial  gardens,  for  advanced  club 

workers,  290 

Picking  herbs  for  drying,  248 
Pickle,    preservation    by    acids    in- 
jurious to  bacteria,  29,  31 
Pickles,  recipes  and  directions,  196- 

209 
Pickling,  directions,  189-227 

meat,  formula  for  small  pieces, 

260 

Pigs'  feet,  pickled,  directions,  265 
Pimiento  ketchup,  recipe  and  direc- 
tions, 211 

Pimiento  canning,  directions,  140 
Pineapple  canning,  Hawaii,  develop- 
ment and  improvement,  7,  8 
preserves,  recipe  and  directions, 

160 

syrup,  formula,  108 
Pits,  outdoor,  for  keeping  root  vege- 
tables, 251,  252 
Plum  conserve,  recipe  and  directions, 

169,  170 

preserves,  directions,  157 
Plums,  canning,  directions,  128,  129 
drying,  directions,  241 
use  as   mock  olives,  directions, 

220 
Pork  brining,  260,  264 

curing,    smoking,    and    keeping, 
general  directions,  261-268 


366 


INDEX 


Pork,  cutting  and  trimming,  direc- 
tions, 261,  262 

preserving,    directions,    261-268 
sausage,  directions,  266,  267 
Portable  canner,  description,  43,  49 
Portland,  Maine,  early  canning  ex- 
periments of  Isaac  Winslow,  5 
Poster  for  canning-club  products,  302 
Poultry    clubs,    Oklahoma,    outlined 

program,  320 
demonstration     work,      results, 

296 
products,    demonstration    work, 

value,  296 
Prescott,    S.    C.,    investigations    of 

canning  technic,  6 

Preparation  and  equipment  for  can- 
ning, 36-58 
Preservation  of  foods,  methods,  29- 

33 

of  meats,  256-274 
Preservatives,  harmless,  use  in  foods, 

30 
Preserves,  148-162 

cooling  and  packing,  150,  151 
grading,  307 
sealing,   151 
score  card,  342 
Preserving  powders,  use,  detrimental 

to  health,  31 
vegetables  by  fermentation,  215- 

220 
Press,  fruit,  homemade,  94-97 

lever,  for  fruit  juice,  construc- 
tion and  use,  95-97 
Prices    of    canned    products,    1916- 

1917',  310,  311 
Prize  winners,  stories  of  work  and 

use  of  money,  294 
Prizes  for  exhibits,  343,  344 
Processing  at  high  temperature,  87- 
92 


Processing,  directions,  66,  74,  77-8-6 
methods,  advantages,  9,  10 
olives,  directions,  219 
Processors,  descriptions,  9,  10,  39 
Program,  girls'  club  meetings,   sug- 
gestions, 290,  291 
Protein,  sources  in  foods,  275,  276 
Publications,  United  States  Govern- 
ment, usefulness,  12 
See  also  Bibliography 
Pumpkin  drying,  directions,  245 

preserves,   directions,    158 
Pumpkins,  canning,  directions,  140- 

142 

Punch,  fruit,  recipes,   120 
Putrefaction,   causes,    4,    5,    15,   20- 
28 

Questions   for   use   in   teaching,    12, 
13,  33,  34,  57,  70,  76,  83,  92,  121, 
122,   132,  147,  162,   173,  188,  226, 
254,  274,  280,  315 
Quince  cheese,  directions,  171 

pectin  content,  and  need  of  acid 
to  develop,  175 

Rahn,  Otto,  experiments  with  brine, 
191 

Rapidity     in     canning,     importance, 
61-64 

Raspberry  ice  and  float,  recipe,  120 

Raspberries,  drying,  illustration  and 
directions,  232,  238 

Records,  canning  suggestions,  315 

Reflector  drier,  directions  for  mak- 
ing, 234,  235 

Reheating  fruit  juice,   99 

Relishes,  definition,  recipes  and  di- 
rections,  190,   204-206 
score  card,  343 

Retorts,  steam,  for  processing,  types, 
87,  90,  91 


INDEX 


367 


Rhubarb    canning,    directions,     126, 

142 

conserve,  directions,  169 
spiced,  recipe,  221 
syrup,  directions,  108 
Rings,  rubber,  adjusting  and  precau- 
tions, 57,  74 

Root  vegetables,  storage,  251,  252 
Roots,  medicinal,  250 
Rubbers,  adjusting  and  precautions, 

57,  74 

Rummage   pickle,   recipe   and   direc- 
tions, 200 

Russell,   H.   L.,   application  of  bac- 
teriology to  canning,  5 

Saccharometer,  description  and  use, 

38,   129,   132,   152,   179 
Sadding,   Mr.,    introduction   of   can- 
ning into  England,  3 
Safety-valve  seal  jar,  description,  51 
Sage  drying,  directions,  249 
Sales,    demonstrations    by    canning 

club  girls,  303 

direct  to  institutions,   etc.,  303 
Salmon  canning,  location,  6 
Salometer,  description  and  use,  191, 

192 
Salt,  addition  to  water  bath  to  raise 

temperature,  9 
percentage  scale  use  in  testing 

brine,  38 

use  in  preserving  food,  30,  31 
Salting  hams,  shoulders,  and  bacon, 

262 

Saltpetre,  use  in  smoking  meats,  dis- 
cussion, 256,  257 
Sanitary  cans,  description,  49 
Saprophytes,     relation     to     canned 

products,   15 
Sassafras  leaves,  drying  and  use  as 

herb,  249 

Sauces,  definition,  recipes  and  direc- 
tions, 190,  211-213 


Sauer  kraut,  directions,  214 

preservation  by  acids  injurious 

to  bacteria,  29 
Sausage  making,  directions,  266-268 

mixed,  directions,  267 
Savory  drying,  directions,  249 
Sawmills,    as    market    for     canned 

goods,  301 
Scalding,  fruits  and  vegetables,  61, 

62 
Scales,  necessity  for  accurate  work, 

38 

Scholarships,  won  by  club  girls,  296 
School  gardens,  324 
Score    cards    for    judging    products, 

use,  339-343 

Scrapple,  directions,  264,  265 
Screening  houses,  results  of  demon- 
stration work,  297 
Screens,  to  protect  food  while  dry- 
ing, 233 

Screw-top  jars,  description,  54 
Scum  yeast  in  brine,  prevention,  194 
Scuppernong  grape  juice,  directions 

for  making,  118 
Seal,  importance  in  canning,  2'8 

testing,  28,  29 
Sealing,  fruit  juices,  101 

glass  jars,  directions,  74-76 

various   devices,   53-57 
jellies,  directions,  185 
sanitary  cans,  machine,  49-51 
preserves,  157 
wax,  homemade  recipe,  101 
Seals  and  sealers,  firms,  address  list, 

349 

Seasoning  for  canned  vegetables,  133 

Second-year  canning  club  course,  319 

work    for    girls    canning    clubs, 

290 

Seeds  useful  in  medicine,  250 
Self-fermentation,    use   as   preserva- 
tion method,  31 
Serving,  work  of  club  girls,  286-290 


368 


INDEX 


Sheep  casings,  268 

Shipping  canned  products,  313 

Shoulders,      cutting,     salting,     and 

smoking,  261-263 
Shrub,  berry,  directions  for  making, 

119 

Skimming  jelly,  directions,  182,  183 
Slicing  apples  for  drying,  2'37 
Smith-Lever  Extension  Act,  283 
Smoke,  control  in  smokehouse,  271, 

272 

liquid,  formula  and  method,  257 
Smoked  meats,  keeping,  272,  273 
Smokehouse,    description,    construc- 
tion, and  use,  268-272 
Smoking  meats,  general   directions, 

256,  257 
meats  in  smokehouse,  directions, 

270-272 
pork,  263 
Sodium  chloride,   use  in  preserving 

food,  30,  31 
Soup  mixture,  canned,  grading,  307 

canning,    directions,    145 
vegetables,    drying    for    use    of 

soldiers  during  war,  230 
Sour  orange  marmalade,  recipe  and 

directions,   165,  166 
preserves,  directions,  155 
Southern  States,  home  work  of  girls 

and  women,  335,  336 
Spatula  use  in  canning,  38 
Specifications  and  plans  for  conveni- 
ences,  demonstrations,    297 
for     constructing     smokehouse, 

269,  270 
Spiced  cucumber  mango,  directions, 

209 
salad  recipe  and  directions, 

199 

pickles,  directions,  196 
damson  plums  and  cherries,  di- 
rections, 225 


Spiced  fruits,  recipes,  222-226 
green  tomatoes,  recipe,  221 
pears,    formula   and   directions, 

225,  226 

rhubarb,  recipe,  221 
vinegar,  recipe,  208 
Spices   for    canned   pumpkin,    direc- 
tions, 141 

use  in  preserving  food,  30 
Spinach  canning,  directions,  142,  143 
Spoilage  cucumber  pickles  caused  by 

bacteria,  194 
food,  theories  of  early  canners, 

1,  2,  6 

cause,  discovery,  4,  5 
Spores,  mold,  growth  and  spread,  17 
yeast,  distribution  and  control, 

20 

Square  tin  cans,  48 
Squash   canning,    directions,    143 

drying,    directions,    245 
Standardizing  canned  goods,  301 
Standards  in  canning,  306,  307 
State  agents,  home  demonstrations, 

work,  results,  285,  286 
Starter,    addition    in    vinegar    mak- 
ing, 113-116 
Steam  canners,  small,  for  home  use, 

87-90 
gauge  on  canner  regulation,  89, 

90 
retorts,   types,   description,   87- 

90 

Steamers,  companies,  address,  349 
Steam- jacketed     kettle,     description 

and  illustration,  161 
Steam-pressure  outfit  for  home  can- 
ning, illustration,  89 
Steel    and    copper    cleaning,    direc- 
tions, 59,  60 

and   tipping  copper  for  sealing 
cans,  50,  51 


INDEX 


369 


Sterilization    by    heat,   use    in    food 

preservation,   32,   33 
intermittent  method,  22',  23 
Sterilizing   containers   before    pack- 
ing, 63,  64,  71 

Storage,  cold,  use  in  food  preserva- 
tion, 33 

of  dried  fruit,   241 
of  dried  vegetables,  246,  247 
of  vegetables,  250-254 
Storing  bottled  fruit  juices,  103 
canned  products,  76 
jellies,  directions,  185 
Stove  for  heating  tools,  82 
Stoves,    kerosene    and   gasoline,    for 

canning,  82-90 
Straining  fruit  juice  for  jelly,  175- 

178 
Straughn,  Doctor,  invention  of  jell- 

ometer,  180 
Strawberry  ice,   recipe,   120 

jelly  with  orange  pectin,  direc- 
tions, 187 
preserves,  recipe  and  directions, 

154,  155 
String    beans,    canning,    directions, 

134,  135 
Stuffed    pepper    mango,    directions, 

207,  208 

Stuffing  sausages,  directions,  266,  267 
Substances    supplied    by    diet,    275- 

280 

Sugar,  addition  to  fruit  juice,  de- 
pendent on  pectin  content, 
178-180 

addition  to  juice  in  jelly  mak- 
ing, 181,  182' 
hydrometer.       See     Saccharom- 

eter 
in   apples,   relation    to   vinegar, 

111,  112 
proportions  for  fruit  syrups,  108 

for  preserves,  153,  154 
quantity  for  jelly,  table,  179 


Sugar  syrup  table,  132 

use  in  preserving  food,  30 
Sulfur,    use    in    drying   fruits,    230, 

231,  237 
Summer    short-courses    in    canning, 

suggestions,  317,  318 
Sun  drying  of  foods,  231,  232,  237 
Sun-cooked  preserves,  directions,  155 
Supplies  for  small  laboratory,   list, 

333-335 

Sweet  bay  leaves,  drying,  249 
pickles,  directions,  222-226 
fruits  suitable  for,   189 
potatoes,     canning,     directions, 

143 

storage,  253,  254 
"  Swells,"  cause,  26-65 
Syrup,  apple,  directions  for  making, 

104,    105 

density     for     canning     various 
fruits,   124,  125,   126-128, 
129 
for  preserves,  148,  150,  154, 

158,  159,  162 
making,  directions,  71 
testing,    152 

Syrups,  fruit,  directions  for  making, 
103-108 

Table   for   testing   apple  juice,   etc., 

for   pectin,   179 
Tables,     arrangement     for     outdoor 

canning,  40,  43,  45 
time,  for  processing  fruits  and 

vegetables,  83,  84,  85,  91 
Tarragon  vinegar,  recipe,  220 
Tartaric  acid  crystals  in  jelly,  pre- 
vention, 100 
Teacher,  cooperation  with  home  and 

club  work,  292 

Teaching    canning    and.    related    ac- 
tivities, 316-345 


370 


INDEX 


Temperature,  raising,  various  de- 
vices used  in  open-kettle  method, 
9 

Testing    canned    goods    by    grocery- 
men,  303 

fruit  juice,  for  pectin,   178-180 
jelly,  directions,  183 
seal  of  can,  68 
syrup,  152 

Texas,  Denton  State  Industrial  Col- 
lege, garden  work,  333 
Thermometer,    use   in    drying   food, 

242 

use  in  preserving  and  jelly  mak- 
ing, 38,  152,  164,  182,  183 
Third-year  canning  club  courses,  319 
Thyme  drying,  directions,  249 
Time-table  for  processing  by  steam, 

91 
Time-tables,   hot-water  process,   83- 

85 
Tin,  canning  in,  59-70 

cans,  early  types  and  develop- 
ment of  manufacture,  3,  4 
manufacturing,   changes  in 

apparatus,  3 
shapes,  sizes,  and  styles,  44, 

51 

testing  the  seals,  28,  29 
container  for  preserving  foods, 

development,  3,  4 
utensils,  objections,  38,  130 
Tipping  cans,  directions,  65,  66 

copper     and     steel,     description 

and  cleaning,   50,  51,   59,  60 

Tomato  canning,  location  of  industry 

and  supply,  7 
green,    mince-meat,    recipe    and 

directions,  172,  173 
green  pickle,   recipe  and  direc- 
tions, 201 
ketchup,  recipe  and  directions, 

209,  210 
paste,  recipe  and  directions,  212 


Tomato    puree    canning,    directions, 

145 

relish,  uncooked,  recipe  and  di- 
rections, 205 

Tomatoes,  canned,  annual  consump- 
tion, report,  1916,  11 
grading,  307 

canning,  directions,  143-146 
green,  spiced,  recipe,  221 
liability  to  molds,  17,  18 
yellow,  preserves,  recipe  and  di- 
rections, 159 
Tongue,  cured,  recipe  and  directions, 

260 
Tools  for  sealing  cans,  50,  52,  59,  60 

heating,  suggestions,  82,  85 
Turnips,  canning,  directions,  145 
Tyndall  discoveries  in  bacteriology, 
importance,  4,  5 

Underwood,  W.  L.,  investigations  of 
canning  technic,  6 

Underwood,  William,  early  work  in 
commercial  canning,  5 

Uniformity   in  size  and   quality  of 
products  desirable,   61 

Uniforms,    canning-club    girls',    de- 
scription, 286-288 

Utensils  for  preparing  and  canning 

fruits  and  vegetables,  36-38 
for  pickle  making,  189 

Vacant  lot  gardening,  322 
Vacuum  driers,  use  in  drying  foods, 

230 
Van  Tapscott,  Bettie,  canning  work, 

304 

Vegetable  driers  or  evaporators,  de- 
scription and  use,  233-238 
soup    mixtures,    drying,    direc- 
tions, 245 
Vegetables    and    fruits,    use   in   the 

diet,  275-281 
canneries,  location,  6,  7 


INDEX 


371 


Vegetables,  canning,  directions,  133- 

147 

time-table,   hot-water   proc- 
ess, 83,  85 
time-table,     processing     by 

steam,  91 
dried,  preparation  for  the  table, 

247 
sweating,      reheating      and 

storing,  246,  247 
drying,  directions,  242-247 

in    evaporators   for   use   of 

soldiers,  230 
for  canning,  133-147 
green,      drying      by      pressure, 

French  method,  230 
home  storage,  250-254 
importance  in  diet,  12 
packing  in   glass  jars   for   can- 
ning,   71 
preparation  for  canning,  61-63 

for  drying,  242 
preserving      by      fermentation, 

215-220 
processing  by  steam,  time-table, 

91 
prompt  canning,  importance  to 

success,  25,  61,  151 
selection,  sorting,  and  grading, 

60,  61 
\vashing,  peeling,  etc.,  utensils, 

36,  37 

Ventilators,      smokehouse,     descrip- 
tion and  need,  270,  271 
Vinegar,    good,    requirements,    115- 

117 

law  requirements,  109,  115 
making,  chemistry  of,   110,   111 

directions,   108-117 
poor,   causes,    115 
sixty-grain,  equivalent  in  acetic 

acid,  206 

spiced,  recipes,  208,  217 
use  in  preserving  food,  30 


Vinegars,  flavored,  recipes,  220 
Virginia,       normal-school       garden 

work,  330,  331 

outdoor      canning,     demonstra- 
tions, 46,  47 

Vitamins    supplied    by    fruits    and 
vegetables,  279 

Washington,  salmon  canning,  6 
Water-bath,         original   '     canning 

methods,  1,  2,  9 
Watermelon    rind,    gingered,    recipe 

and  directions,  158,  159 
pickles,  directions,  222 
preserves,  recipe  and  direc- 
tions, 158 
Watts  family,  fine  record  in  canning 

work,  305 

Wax,  sealing,  homemade  recipe,  101 
Willard  School  Farm,  gardens  and 

canning  work,  324-326,  328 
Winslow,  Isaac,  work  in  canning,  5 
Winter  garden  demonstrations,  296 
Wire  basket  with  steam  canner,  de- 
scription and  use,  9 
baskets  for  blanching  fruits,  9, 

38 
Women    county    agents    and    funds 

available,    1914-1917,   284 
farm,  extension  work,  282,  295, 

298 
Women's  clubs,  organization,  296 

Yeast  germs,  action  in  fermentation, 

112 

nature,    growth,    and   reproduc- 
tion, 19,  20,  21 
scum,     prevention    in     pickling 

brine,  194 

Yellow  wash  for  meat  canvas,  recipe, 
273 

Zinc  tops  for  jars,  objections,  54 


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